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English  Grammar 


O.P.  aUACKENBOS  LL.D. 


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N,v«MTY,  ,  EDUCATIONAL  WORKS 

CAUFO«NlA 


nmikmr^w,  *«».  ENGLISH 


Ilectual  Philosophy. 
Appletons'  Readers : 

First  Reader.      Second  Reader.      Third  Reader.      Fourth 
Reader.     Fifth  Reader.     Int't  Fourth  Reader. 
Appletons'  Chart  Primer. 

Elementary  Reading  Charts. 

Patent  Blap  and  Chart  Supporter. 

New  Elementary  Geog^raphy. 

Higher  Geography. 

Physical  Geography. 

Appletons'  Standard  Arithmetics : 

I.  Numbers  Illustrated,     II.  Numbers  Applikd. 
Appletons'  Penmanship : 

Lead  Pencil  Course.  Short  Course. 

Tracing  Courss.  Grammar  Course. 

Appletons'  liVriting  Charts.     With  Supporter. 
Arnott's  Physics. 

Atkinson's  Ganot's  Natural  Pliilosophy. 
Ayres's  Orthoepist  (School  Edition). 
Bain's  Composition  and  Rhetoric.     (Old  Edition.) 
Part  I.     (New  Edition.) 

Mental  Science.     Moral  Science.     l4>gic. 

Education  as  a  Science. 

On  Teaching  English. 

Baldwin's  Art  of  School  Management. 

Elementary  Psychology  and  Education. 

Ballard's  Words,  and  how  to  put  them  together. 

Word  W^riter. 

Pieces  to  Speak. 

Bentley's  Physiological  Botany. 
Bowen's  Astronomy  by  Observation. 
Brewster's  First  Book  of  Chemistry. 
Bright's  Graded  Instruction  in  English. 
Bryant  licaflets. 

Clark's  L.  L.  L.,  or  Fifty  I.aw  Lessons. 
Clark's  Elements  of  Chemistry. 
Chichester's  Original-Drawing  Book. 
Choate's  Elements  of  English  Speech. 
Coe's  Drawing  Cards. 
Cornell's  Primary   Geography. 

Intermediate  Geography. 

Physical  Geography. 

First  Steps  in  Geography. 

-  Map-Drawing  Cards. 


j^r^ 


ED  U  CA  TIOXA  L   WORKS. 

CuriifirK  St'rieH  of  Outline  Maps. 

DeCiraflT'H  KxcroiHv  Hook. 

DennlM'H  Study  of  L<*a«-eH. 

Deschauel's  Natural   PhiloMophy.     By  J.  D.  Everbtt.     Four  Parts. 

Kverett's  OutUueti  uf  Natural  rhlloKophy. 

Froebel's  Kducation  of  Man.     Edited  by  W.  N.  Hailxann. 

Glll(.*Mpi«'H  Treatise  on  Surveying.     By  Profeeaor  Cadt  Stalkt. 

GUinore'M  KngliMh   I.4ingruas:e  and  Literature. 

LorIc. 

Green'H  Slate  Drawing  Cards. 

Greenwood's  Principles  of  ^duration  Practically  Applied. 

Heilprin's  Historical  Reference  Hook. 

Henslow's  Itotauical  Charts.     VViih  Exceleior  Supporter. 

History  Primers.     Edited  bv  J.  R.  Green.  M.  A. 

KoME.  (JIlE^x•K.  Europe.  Old  Orrek  Lipe.  Obograput.  Ro- 
man Antk^uities  Framcb.  Medieval  Civilization.  Romaii 
Constitution. 

lloWunon's  Krrors  in  the  Use  of  Knglish.    School  Edition. 

Holtler's  Kleuients  of  Zoology. 

Huxley  and  Youinans's  Physitilogy  and  Hygiene. 

Johonnot's  Natural  History  Readers: 

I.  CntH  and  Dog*»,  and  other  Friende.  II.  Friends  in  Feathers  and 
Fur.  Ill  (1).  Neljrhbora with \Vine8 and  Finp.  Ill  (2).  SomeCn- 
rioufl  Fivers.  Creepen*.  and  Swimmert*.  IV.  Neighbors  with 
Ciawn  and  Hoofs.     V.  The  Animate  World. 

Johonnot's  Historical  Readers: 

I.  (Jrandfaiher'a  Stories.  II.  Stories  of  Heroic  Deeds.  Ill  (1).  Sto- 
rie!»  of  onr  Country.  Ill  (2).  Stories  of  other  lands.  IV  (1). 
Stories  of  the  Olden  Time.  IV  («).  Ten  Great  Events  in  History. 
V.  How  Nations  Grow  and  Decay. 

Johonnot's  Geographical  Reader. 

Sentence  and  Word  Book. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching. 

Johonnot  and  Routon's  Klenientary  Phyhiology. 
Kiehle's  New  Practical  Arithmetic. 

Krilsl's  System  of  Drawing. 

Ka««y  Lessons.     Three  Parts. 

Synthetic  .Series.     Four  Books  and  Manual. 

'  Analytic  Series.     Four  Books  and  Manual. 

Perspective  .Series.     Four  Books  and  Manual. 

Supplementary  Series.     Six  Books. 

Drawing  Tablets. 

Textile  Designs.    By  Charles  Eastnbh.    Six  BooBS. 

Outline  and  Relief  Designs.     By  E.  C.  Clbavbs.    Six  Books. 

Mechanical  Drawing.     By  F.  B.  Morsb.     Six  Books. 

Architectural  Drawing.    By  Charles  Babcock.    Nine  Books. 

lAarle's  Rise  of  Universities. 

I^anghlln's  Klements  of  Political  Kconomy. 

Study  of  Political  Kconomy. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/englishgrammarOOquacrich 


'■  "Nv 


AN 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 


BY  G.    P.  QUACKENBOS,  LL.  D., 

rBWcrPAt  or  "Tn«  collfoiatb  bchool,"  k.  t.  ;  authob  of  "ftrbt  LnsoKS  in 

OOMPOSmON,"  "  ADVANCED  CO0B8B  OF  COMPOSITION   AND   RIIETOEIC," 

**A  IfATCRAL  PHIL080PHT,"  "ILLUSTRATED  SCHOOL  HISTOKT 

OF  TUE  UNITED  STATES,"    "  PRIMARY   UtSTOBT 

OF  TUS  UNITED  STATES,"  EIO. 


^  JOHN  S.  Pi^ELL 


NEW  YORK: 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY, 

1,  8,  AKD  6  BOND  STREET. 
1888. 


By  the  same  Author : 

FIRBT  LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION :  In  which  the  Principles  of  the  Art  are 
developed  in  connection  with  the  Principles  of  Grammar.    12mo.,  pp.  182. 

ADVANCED  COURSE  OF  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC :  A  Series  of 
Practical  Lessons  on  the  Origin,  History,  and  Peculiarities  of  the  English  Language, 
Punctuation,  Taste,  Figures,  Style  and  its  Essential  Properties,  Criticism,  and  the 
various  Departments  of  Prose  and  Poetical  Composition.    12mo.,  pp.  461. 

I^LLUSTRATED  SCHOOL  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES:  Embracing  a 
full  Account  of  the  Aborigines,  Biographical  Notices  of  Distinguished  Men,  nu- 
merous Maps,  Plans  of  Battle-fields,  and  Pictorial  Illustrations.  12mo.,  pp.  473 

PEIMARY  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES :  Made  easy  and  interesting 
for  Beginners.    Child's  Quarto,  splendidly  illustrated,  pp.  192. 

A  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY:  Embracing  the  most  recent  Discoveries  in  Physics. 
Adapted  to  use  with  or  without  Apparatus,  and  accompanied  with  Practiodi 
£Kercises  and  335  Illustrations.    12mo.,  pp.  450. 


£^ctuLeW)oi^ 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S62,  by 

G.  P.  QUACKENBOS, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 

Southern  District  of  New  York. 


Add  to  Lib. 
GIFT 


CONTENTS 


I. 


I. 

IL 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XL 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XI.X. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII, 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

XXXV. 

XXXVI. 

XXXVII. 

XXXVIII. 

XXXIX. 

XL. 

XLI. 

XMI. 

XLIII. 

XLIV. 

XLV. 

XLVI. 

XLVIL 


Word* 


Lettora,  Syllablofl,  Worda,  Sentences      . 
Cla«8iflcation  of  Letters 

Accent.— Primitive,  Derivative,  and  Compound 
Formation  of  Derivatives.— Iiuteparable  Root« 
Preflxea         ..... 

Suffixes    ...... 

Annlysia  of  Words  .... 

Rules  of  Spelling  .... 

Syllabication  .... 

Forms  of  the  Letters     .... 

The  Parts  of  Speech 

Nouns  and  their  Cla«se« 

Subdivisions  of  Common  Nouns 

The  Person  of  Nouns  .... 

The  Number  of  Noun3 

Irrcgrular  Plurals  .... 

Plural  of  Compound  and  Complex  Nouns 

Plural  of  Foreign  Nouns 

Nouns  not  used  in  both  Numbers 

The  Gender  of  Nouns  .... 

Masculine  and  Feminine  Correlatives 

The  Case  of  Nouns,      .... 

The  Declension  of  Nouns 

The  Pronoun.— Personal  Pronouns  . 

Rules  for  Nouns  and  Pronouns    . 

Parsing  Forms  for  Nouns  and  Pronouns     . 

Simple  Relative  Pronouns 

Compound  Relative  Pronouns 

Interrogative  Pronouns 

Adjective  Pronouns      .... 

The  Article  ..... 

Adjectives  and  their  Classes   . 

Comparison  of  Adjectives 

Irregular  Comparlhon  .... 

A  Written  Exercise 
Verbs  and  their  Classes 

Voice 

Proport»e«  of  Verbs.  —Mood.— Tense 
T'  •  •  '  vo  Mood  and  Its  Tenses 
'I  Mood  and  its  Tenses    . 

'I  "ivc  and  Imperative  Mood  . 

Ttie  Iittiiiitive  Mood.— Person  and  Number  of 

Participles 

Construction  of  Participle*     . 

Auxiliaries.- B«,  Aar« 

Tlio  Auxiliaries  </o,rfid;irtU,«Aa//     . 

The  AuxiliariM  maif,  eon,  imwf,  need,  might,  could,  ^. 


Verbs 


207 


CONTENTS. 


XLVIII. 

XLIX. 

L. 

LI. 

LII. 

Lin. 

LIV. 

LV. 

LVL 

LVII. 

LVIIL 

LIX. 

LX. 

LXL 

LXII. 

LXIII. 

LXIV. 

LXV. 

LXVI. 

LXVIL 

LXVIIL 

LXIX. 

LXX. 

LXXI. 

LXXII. 

LXXIIL 

LXXIV. 

LXXV. 

LXXVL 

LXXVII. 

LXXVIII. 

LXX  IX. 

LXXX. 

LXXXL 

LXXXIL 

LXXXIIL 

LXXXIV. 

LXXXV. 

LXXXVL 

LXXXVIL 

Lxxxvin. 

LXXXIX. 

xc. 

XCL 

XCIL 

XCIIL 

XCIV. 

XCV. 

XCVL 

XCVIL 

XCVIIL 

XCIX. 

C. 

CL 


The  Verb  bb       .....  . 

Conjugation  of  a  Transitive  Verb  in  tUe  Active  Voice 

Conjugation  of  a  Transitive  Verb  in  the  PaBsive  Voice 

Progressive  Form  of  the  Verb 

Negative  and  Interrogative  Conjugations    . 

Verbs  distinguished  as  Regular  and  Irregular 

Table  of  Primitive  Irregular  Verbs  . 

Defective  Verbs       .... 

The  Adverb        ..... 

Adverbs  (continued) 

Comparison  and  Construction  of  Adverbs  . 

The  Preposition       .... 

Prepositions  (continued) 

The  Conjunction      .... 

The  Interjection  .... 

A  Practical  Review 

Sentences  classified  according  to  their  Meaning 

Sentences  classified  according  to  their  Form 

Structure  of  Sentences 

Analysis  of  Sentences 

Analysis  (continued)     .... 

Ellipsis  ..... 

Explanation  of  Difficult  Constructions 

Subject.— Nominative  Independent.— False  Syntax 

Substantives  modifying  Nouns. — False  Syntax 

Object. — Objective  of  Time.— False  Syntax 

Substantives  in  Apposition. — False  Syntax . 

Substantives  after  Verbs.- False  Syntax 

Pronouns. — False  Syntax 

Pronouns  (continued). — False  Syntax 

Relative  Pronouns. — False  Syntax     . 

Pronouns  (continued). — False  Syntax 

Articles.- False  Syntax 

Adjectives.— False  Syntax 

Adjectives  (continued).— False  Syntax 

Finite  Verbs.— False  Syntax 

Finite  Verbs  (continued). — False  SjTitax 

Finite  Verbs  (continued).— False  Syntax 

The  Infinitive.— False  Syntax 

Participles.— False  Syntax 

Participles  (continued).— False  Syntax 

Adverbs.— False  Syntax    . 

Prepositions.- False  Syntax  . 

Conjunctions.— False  Syntax 

Miscellaneous  Exercise  in  False  SjTitax 

Rules  for  Capitals  . 

Punctuation        .... 

Punctuation  (continued)    . 

Punctuation  (continued) 

Punctuation  (continued)    . 

Apostrophe.— Hyphen.— Quotation-points  . 

Figures  of  Etymology.— Figures  of  Syntax 

Figures  of  Rhetoric      .... 

Prosody         ..... 

Prosody  (continued)     .... 


PREFACE. 


Several  years  ago,  the  author  was  engaged  by  the  publishers 
of  Weld's  English  Grammar  to  revise  that  work,  with  instructions 
to  make  such  changes  in  it  as  would  in  his  opinion  perfect  the 
system  therein  presented.  This  task  he  performed  to  the  best 
of  his  ability,  making  as  good  a  book  as  he  knew  how  to  produce 
on  Weld's  system.  This  system,  however,  was  not  his  own ;  in 
many  important  points  it  did  not  represent  his  views ;  nor  was 
it  his  province,  being  simply  its  editor,  to  introduce  his  own  pe- 
culiar views  into  the  revised  book.  They  have  been  retained  for 
the  present  work,  contemplated  long  before  the  revision  was  un- 
dertaken, and  here  presented  as  a  new  and  distinct  System  of 
Grammar. 

In  offering  the  present  Grammar  to  the  public,  the  author 
begs  leave  to  refer  to  the  work  itself  as  the  best  exponent  of  those 
peculiarities  by  which  it  is  to  be  approved  or  condemned.  A  few 
words,  however,  may  not  be  improper  here  as  to  its  plan  and  gen- 
eral features. 

Grammar  has  hitherto  been  a  dry  and  hard  subject  to  teach. 
It  is  here  sooght  to  make  it  easy  and  interesting  by  combining 
practice  with  theory,  example  with  precept,  on  a  more  liberal 
scale  than  has  heretofore  generally  been  done.  The  matter  is 
divided  into  short  lessons,  followed  in  every  case  by  an  Exercise, 
which  applies  in  every  variety  of  way  the  principles  just  laid 


©  PREFACE. 

down,  and  frequently  embodies  a  practical  review  of  what  has 
been  previously  learned. 

Definitions  are  approached  by  means  of  preliminary  illustra- 
tions, which  make  their  abstract  language  intelligible  while  it  is 
in  process  of  learning. 

Words  are  classified  as  parts  of  speech  solely  and  exclusively 
according  to  their  iise  in  the  sentence.  This  course  does  away 
with  all  arbitrary  distinctions,  and  enables  the  pupil  to  classify 
words  readily  and  correctly  for  himself. 

The  Eules  of  Syntax  are  introduced  as  they  are  needed,  in 
connection  with  etymological  parsing.  Thus,  among  other  ad- 
vantages, is  avoided  the  unreasonableness  (inevitable,  when  these 
rules  are  kept  back)  of  requiring  a  pupil  to  give  the  case  of  nouns 
under  circumstances  in  which  he  can  have  no  possible  clue  to  it. 

A  simple  method  of  analyzing  sentences  is  presented,  not  en- 
cnmbered  with  technical  terms  or  requu-ing  labor  on  the  teacher's 
part  to  make  it  available. 

There  is  no  avoiding  of  difficulties.  A  lesson  is  expressly  de- 
voted to  the  explanation  of  perplexing  constructions. 

Many  minor  points  may  also  be  noticed ;  such  as  doing  away 
with  the  neuter  gender,  a  factitious  distinction  engrafted  on  English 
Grammar  from  the  classical  languages ;  the  view  taken  of  com- 
parison ;  the  comprehensive  treatment  of  auxiliaries,  and  direc- 
tions for  their  proper  use ;  the  introduction  of  need^  as  an  auxil- 
iary of  the  present  potential ;  the  unusually  full  Exercises  on  False 
Syntax  ;  and  the  general  arrangement  and  adaptation  of  the  whole. 

It  is  believed  that  this  Grammar  will  be  found  to  work  well  in 
the  class-room,  and,  whether  used  in  connection  with  the  author's 
books  on  Composition  or  independently  of  them,  to  impart  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  our  language. 
N»Tr  TOBK,  July  22, 1862. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


LESSON   I. 

LETTER8,  SYLLABLES,  WORDS,  SENTENCES- 

1.  "What  Grammar  is. — Men  have  minds ;  with 
these  they  tliink.  Men  have  speech ;  this  enables 
them  to  express  their  thoughts. 

Thoughts  are  expressed  with  words.  Grammar 
teaches  us  how  to  put  words  together,  to  express 
thoughts  correctly. 

Thoughts  may  be  either  spoken  or  written.  Gram- 
mar, therefore,  teaches  us  how  to  speak  and  write  cor- 
rectly. 

Different  languages,  mch  as  English,  French,  Latin, 
have  different  peculiarities.  Hence  every  language  has 
its  own  grammar.  English  Grammar  teaches  us  how 
to  speak  and  write  the  English  language  correctly. 

2.  Words. — A  Word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

1.  W»th  what  do  men  think  f  ITow  »re  they  enabled  to  cxprem  their  thon?ht«f 
With  what  are  thought*  expretMedf  Wl>at  teaches  as  how  to  put  wordrt  to- 
gether, to  ozprcM  thoaghti  correctly  I  How  mr.y  thouKhta  be  made  known  f 
What,  ihtn,  ioet  Grammar  teach  un ?  What  dues  EtJtrlish  Qrammir  leach  ua f 
What  ia  a  Wurdt    Qlvs  aa  example.     Uuw  are  worda  eombiuedr    Oive  an 


8  LETTEES. — SYLLABLES. 

Thus,  the  word  rose  is  a  sign  that  stands  for  the  queen  of  flowers.  The 
word  village  is  a  sign  that  stands  for  a  small  collection  of  houses. 

To  express  thoughts,  words,  which  are  the  signs  of 
distinct  ideas,  are  combined  in  Sentences.  When  I  saj, 
"  The  rose  is  sweet,"  I  express  one  thought,  with  four 
words  combined  in  one  sentence. 

3.  Letters. — When  spoken,  a  word  is  a  sound  or 
combination  of  sounds.  When  written,  a  word  is  a 
character  or  combination  of  characters,  standing  for  its 
sound  or  sounds.  The  word  7'ose^  when  written,  con- 
sists of  four  characters,  rose^  which  stand  for  the  sound 
heard  when  the  word  is  uttered.  These  characters  are 
called  Letters. 

A  Letter  is  a  character  that  stands  for  a  sound  of  the 
human  voice  used  in  speaking ;  as,  a,  z. 

The  letters  of  a  language  constitute  its  Alphabet. 
The  English  alphabet  contains  twentj-six  letters ;  «,  5, 
^>  <^j  ^j  />  91  \  h  h  h  h  ^)  ^j  0,  p,  2',  r,  5,  t,  u,  V,  w,  X, 

The  art  of  combining  letters  correctly,  to  form  words, 
is  called  Spelling. 

4.  Syllables. — Some  words  are  uttered  with  but  one 
impulse  of  the  voice;  as,  go,  light.  Others  require 
several  impulses ;  as,  go-ing,  en-light-en.  This  gives 
rise  to  a  division  of  words  into  Syllables. 

A  Syllable  is  a  letter  or  combination  of  letters  uttered 
with  one  impulse  of  the  voice ;  as,  a,  an,  ant,  an-ti- 
dote, 

6.  Syllabic  Division  of  Words. — According  to  the 

example.  8.  What  is  a  word,  -when  spoken?  What,  -when  written?  Give  an 
example.  What  is  a  Letter  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  Alphabet  of  a  language  ? 
How  manj'  letters  does  the  English  alphabet  contain  ?  Repeat  them.  What  is 
Spelling?  4.  Show  the  difference  of  words,  as  regards  their  utterance.  What  is  a 
Syllable  ?    5.  How  are  words  divided,  as  regards  their  number  of  syllables  f    What 


SYLLABIC   DIVISION    OF   WORDS.  9 

number  of  their  syllables,  words  are  divided  into  four 
classes ;  Monosyllables,  Dissyllables,  Trisyllables,  and 
Polysyllables. 

A  Monosyllable  is  a  word  of  one  syllable ;  a  Dissyllable 
is  a  word  of  two  syllables ;  a  Trisyllable,  of  three ;  a 
Polysyllable,  of  more  than  three,  lie  is  a  monosyllable ; 
hc-ro^  a  dissyllable;  he-ro-ic^  a  trisyllable;  he-ro-i-caly 
he-ro-i-cal-ly^  are  polysyllables. 

6.  SuM^iiNo  UP. — The  elements  of  lanf^iiage  are  Let- 
ters, which  stand  for  simple  sounds  of  the  human  voice 
used  in  speaking.  Letters  are  combined  in  Syllables, 
which  represent  sounds  uttered  by  one  impulse  of  the 
voice.  Syllables  are  combined  in  Words,  which  are  the 
signs  of  ideas.  Words  are  combined  in  Sentences, 
which  express  thoughts. 

EXERCISE. 

Pronounce  each  of  the  following  tcordSy  and  tell  whether  it  is  a 
monosyllable^  dissyllable^  trisyllable^  or  polysyllable: — Length; 
courageous ;  wintry ;  irresistible  ;  coined  ;  uncoined ;  beautiful ; 
mechanism ;  unmerciful ;  asthma ;  every ;  trout ;  meteorology ; 
flower ;  chivalry  ;  wicked  ;  walked  ;  stereoscope. 

Mention  four  dissyllables;  four  polysyllables;  four  monosyl- 
lables ;  four  trisyllables. 


LESSON  II. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   LETTERS. 

7.  Powers  of  the  Letters. — ^Tlie  Power  of  a  letter 
^8  its  sound  in  a  given  word. 

The  potoer  of  a  letter  must  be  disticgtiished  from  its  name.    In  the 

i«  •  MononylUblet    A  DiMylUblet    A  Triayllablet    A  Polyayllablet     0.  Bam 
up  the  mntUr  of  thU  Lmmni. 

7.  What  U  the  Power  i>t  a  letter  t    From  what  miut  the  power  of  a  letter  ba 


10  VOWELS   AND   CONSONANTS. 

word  Twe,  the  power  of  «  is  the  same  as  its  name ;  in  met^  the  power  of  g  is 
different  from  its  name.  Give  the  name  and  the  power  of  each  letter  in 
the  word/ar/?i6-. 

Some  letters  stand  for  more  than  one  sound ;  as,  a  in  a/e,  awl^  are^  am. 

Some  sounds  have  more  than  one  letter  to  stand  for  them.  Thus,  in 
her^  sir^  fur^  the  same  sound  is  represented  by  e,  ^,  and  u. 

Our  twenty-six  letters  represent  in  all  about  forty  distinct  sounds. 

8.  YowELS  AND  Consonants. — Of  tlie  twentj-six  let- 
ters, some  are  uttered  freely,  without  interruption  to 
the  breath ;  as,  a,  e.  In  uttering  others,  the  breath  is 
more  or  less  interrupted  by  the  tongue  or  lips ;  as,  d,f. 
Hence  the  letters  are  divided  into  two  classes,  Yowels 
and  Consonants. 

A  Vowel  is  a  letter  that  can  be  uttered  freely,  with- 
out interruption  from  the  tongue  or  lips. 

A  Consonant  is  a  letter  that  cannot  be  uttered  freely, 
but  is  more  or  less  interrupted  by  the  tongue  or  lips. 

9.  There  are  five  vowels ;  a,  e,  i,  o,  u. 

There  are  nineteen  consonants ;  5,  c,  d,fj  g^  h^j^  Ic,  I, 
m,  71,  ^,  ^,  r^  s,  t,  V,  Xy  2. 

Two  of  the  letters,  w  and  y,  are  consonants  in  some 
cases,  and  in  others  vowels.  When  they  precede  a 
vowel  sounded  in  the  same  syllable,  they  are  conso- 
nants ;  as  in  wet,  whet,  swing,  re-ward,  yet,  un-yield-ing. 
In  all  other  positions,  they  are  vowels ;  as  in  view,  awe, 
ly,  eye,  raw-ly. 

U  and  i  are  classed  among  the  vowels.  But  observe  that  m  is  a  con- 
sonant when  it  has  the  sound  of  w  in  wet ;  as  in  q^dt^  dissuade  [pronounced 
^wi<,  dis-swade].  /,  also,  is  a  consonant,  when  it  has  the  soimd  of  y  in 
yet ;  as  in  billion^  brilliant  [pronounced  bil-yun^  bril-jant\  i 

distinguiehed  ?  Give  examples.  For  what  do  eome  letters  stand?  Wliat  do  some 
Bounds  have  to  represent  them?  Give  examples.  How  many  sounds  are  repre- 
Bentcd  by  our  twenty-six  letters  ?  8.  What  difference  is  found  in  the  utterance  of 
the  different  letters ?  Accordingly,  how  are  letters  divided?  WTiat  is  a  Vowel? 
What  is  a  Consonant?  9.  How  many  vowels  are  there?  Name  them.  How 
many  consonants  ?  Name  them.  What  are  w  and  y  1  When  are  tr  and  y  conso- 
nants, and  when  vowels  ?    When  is  i«  a  consonant  ?    Give  examples.    When  is  »  a 


DIPimiONGS. — TRIPHTHONGS.  11 

10.  Combinations  of  Vowels. — A  Diphthong  is  a 
combination  of  two  vowels  in  one  syllable ;  as,  ai  in 
vain,  ow  in  cow,  ea  in  heat, 

A  Proper  Diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  vowels  are 
sounded ;  as,  oy  in  hoy,  ou  in  pound. 

An  Improper  Diphthong  is  one  in  which  but  one  vowel 
is  sounded ;  as,  ie  in  inicn  [sounded  like  e  in  me],  au 
m  fraud  [sounded  like  a  in  all], 

A  Triphthong  is  a  combination  of  three  vowels  in  one 
syllable ;  as,  lew  in  view,  eau  in  heau. 

When  u  has  the  sound  of  to  in  toet^  and  i  that  of  y  in  yet^  they  are  con- 
Bonants,  and  do  not  therefore,  when  followed  by  a  vowel,  unite  with  it  to 
form  a  diphthong.  There  is  no  diphthong  in  the  words  (/uack,  sanguine., 
persuade,  brilliant,  kc.  So,  there  is  no  triphthong  in  queen  ;  «  is  a  conso- 
nant in  that  word,  and  ee  a  diphthong. 

11.  A  Final  Letter  is  one  that  ends  a  word.  T  is 
final  In  rat. 

12.  A  Silent  Letter  is  one  not  sounded.  JE^  is  silent 
in  ice,  k  in  knave,  I  in  talk,  w  in  wrong, 

EXEIJCISE. 

In  the  follmcing  tpords,  point  out  the  rowels.,  consonants,  final 
letters,  silent  letters,  proper  and  improper  diphthongs,  and  triph- 
thongs : — Gnaw ;  wheat ;  huraorously ;  quadrillion  ;  liquor ;  yeast ; 
beauties;  sword;  burlesque;  two;  squaw;  eye-brow;  hymn; 
coast-wise;  yiciously;  walking- beam ;  psalm. 


LESSON   III. 

ACCENT.— PRIMITIVE,  DERIVATIVE,  AND  COMPOUND  WORDa 

13.  Accent. — ^When  a  word  of  two  or  more  syllables 

oonMMiftntV  Give  example*.  10.  What  Is  r  Diphfhonjcf  What  Is  n  Proper  DIph- 
thn-->  ^v»  t  \tt  tax  Improper  DIplithonRf  What  In  a  Triphthong!  When  m 
a  nanU,  what  follows?    U.  What  Is  a  Final  Lett«r  T    12.  What  is  a 

U.  Why  is  one  syllable  of  a  word  heard  more  dlstlocUy  than  the  reat  f    WlMt 


12  ACCENT. 

is  pronounced,  one  syllable  is  generally  heard  more  dis- 
tinctly than  the  rest ;  as,  ter  in  terrible^  sleep  in  asleep. 
This  is  because  it  receives  more  force,  or  stress,  of  voice. 
Accent  is  stress  of  voice  laid  on  a  certain  syllable 
when  a  word  is  uttered. 

14.  The  syllable  that  receives  the  stress  is  said  to  be 
accented.  It  may  be  denoted  by  a  mark  called  the 
Acute  Accent  ('),  placed  above  it  to  the  right;  as, 
lem'on,  engrave'. 

The  first  syllable  is  accented  in  orange^  Canada^  amiable ;  the  second, 
in  create,  inviting,  America;  the  third,  in  magazine,  Alabama,  h'resist- 
ible;  the  fourth,  in  overfatigue,  Adrianople,  incomprehensible;  the  fifth, 
in  indivisibility ;  the  sixth,  in  incomp'ehensibility. 

15.  A  difference  of  accent  sometimes  serves  to  distinguish  words 
spelled  alike  but  differing  in  meaning.  Thus  Au'gust  is  the  eighth  month ; 
august'  is  grave,  majestic.  A  gallant  is  a  brave  man ;  a  gallant'  is  a  gay, 
fashionable  one.  A  concert  is  a  musical  entertainment ;  to  concert'  plans 
is  to  contrive  them.  Observe  a  similar  difference  between  a  perfume  and 
to  perfume';  an  ob'ject  and  to  object';  an  overflow  and  to  overflow',  &c. 

16.  Words  classified  according  to  their  Forma- 
tion.—-As  regards  their  formation,  words  are  distin- 
guished as  Primitive,  Derivative,  and  Compound. 

A  Primitive  is  a  word  not  formed  from  any  other  in 
the  language ;  as,  ice,  house,  arm,  light. 

A  Derivative  is  a  word  formed  from  a  single  simpler 
word,  by  the  addition  of  a  letter  or  letters  to  modify  its 
meaning ;  as,  icedi,  houses,  dii^arm,  enlighten. 

A  Compound  Word  is  one  formed  of  two  or  morb 
words,  whether  primitives  or  derivatives ;  as,  ice-house, 
light-armed,  hackwoodsman. 
f— 

Ib  Accent  ?  14.  What  is  an  accented  syllable  ?  How  may  it  be  denoted  ?  Give  an 
example  of  words  accented  on  the  first  syllable  ;  on  the  second  ;  on  the  third  ;  on 
the  fourth  ;  on  the  fifth  ;  on  the  sixth.  15.  What  does  a  difference  of  accent  scmo- 
times  serve  to  do?  Give  examples.  16.  As  regards  their  formation,  how  ere 
words  divided  f  What  is  a  Primitive  <  Wljat  is  a  Derivative  ?  What  is  a  Com- 
found  Word  ?    How  may  a  derivative  be  formed  ?    How  may  a  compound  be 


ACCENT  OP  COMPOUND   W0ED8.  13 

A  derivative  may  be  formed  from  a  compound ;  as,  good-natured  from 
good-nature. 

A  compound  may  bo  formed  of  two  derivatives ;  as,  rosy-cheeked  {rosy^ 
from  roM  ;  checked,  from  cheek). 

17.  Accent  of  Compound  Words. — In  some  com- 
pounds, there  is  but  one  accent ;  as,  gen'tleman, 
praise' worthy.  In  others,  each  of  the  words  com- 
pounded retains  its  accent  ;  as,  writ'ing-mas'ter^ 
man  y-coV  ored. 

When  there  are  more  accents  than  one,  the  parts  of  the  compound  are 
generally  connected  with  a  short  horizontal  line  (-),  called  the  Hyphen. 
When  there  is  but  one  accent  in  the  compound,  the  hyphen  is  commonly 
omitted.     See  the  examples  in  the  last  paragraph. 

EXERCISE. 

Pronounce  as  accented  : — Inqui'ry  ;  muse'um  ;  camel'opard ; 
hegi'ra;  sono'rous;  complaisance';  corapla'cence ;  lyce'ura;  chi- 
val'ric ;  chiv'alrous ;  adver'tisement ;  mis'chievous ;  chas'tisement ; 
exoter'ic ;  Ori'on ;  Aristi'des ;  Iphigeni'a ;  Ma'homet ;  Moham'med ; 
Sardanapa'lus. 

Classify  as  Primitive,  Derivative^  or  Compound^  and  state  which 
syllable  is  accented : — Hand  ;  handy  ;  unhandy  ;  hand-writing  ; 
Mississippi;  achievement;  imperishable;  unlooked-for;  butter- 
milk; broken-hearted;  narrow-mindedness;  irritability;  arith' 
metic  i  a  rosewood  chess-board,  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl. 


LESSON    IV. 

FORMATION  OP  DERIVATIVES.-INSEPARABLE  ROOTa 

18.  Formation    of    DERrvATiVES.  —  The    primitive 
words  of  our  language  are  few,  compared  with  the 

formed  I  17.  What  dlffcronce  la  found  In  the  acccntaation  of  compound  words  t 
Give  examplrs.  What  is  the  Hyphen  t  When  is  the  hyphen  frenerally  used  be- 
tween tlie  parts  of  a  compound  t    When  ts  It  commonly  omitted  ? 

18.  How  do  primltlTe  words  compare  In  number  with  derivatives  f    Why  la 
this  I    What  derivatives  are  fbrmed  fh>m  the  primitiye  part  1    How  are  these  d» 


14:  FORMATION   OF   DERIVATIVES. 

derivatives.     Tliis  is  because  many  derivatives  somo- 

times  come  from  a  single  primitive.     Tlius  from  the 

primitive  ijart  are  formed 

countermart,  partj^  unvaried, 

diQpart^  ^a7'i!isan,         coj!>«rtoer, 

impart,  jpariicle,  imjoarfing,  &c.,  &c. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  derivatives  are  formed  by  placing  certain  let* 

ters  before  or  after  the  primitive,  or  both.     The  letters  thus  placed  are 

called  Prefixes  and  SuflSxes. 

19.  Prefixes  and  Suffixes. — A  Prefix  is  a  letter  or 
letters  placed  before  a  primitive  or  compound,  to  modify 
its  meaning ;  as,  de  in  depart,  un  in  ungentlemanly. 

A  Suffix  is  a  letter  or  letters  placed  after  a  primitive 
or  compound,  to  modify  its  meaning;  as,  i^an  in  part- 
isan, ly  in  ungentlemanly. 

Prefixes  and  suffixes  modify  the  meaning  of  the  word  to  which  they  are 
joined.  Thus,  the  prefix  un  means  not ;  the  suffix  ncss  means  the  quality 
of  being.  Then  unkind  means  not  kind;  kindness  is  the  quality  of  being 
kind;  unkindness  is  the  quality  of  being  not  kind.  So  with  unsoundy 
soundness y  unsoundiuss,  &c.,  &c. 

20.  Inseparable  Roots.  —  Some  derivatives  come 
from  roots  not  separately  used  as  words.  Thus,  avert, 
reverted,  cmivertihle,  and  many  other  derivatives,  come 
from  the  root  vert,  meaning  to  turn. 

These  roots  are  mostly  from  Latin  words,  and  some  of  them  enter  into 
a  great  number  of  derivatives.  The  most  important  ones  are  given  belo*« 
with  their  meanings,  and  should  be  committed  to  memory. 

INSEPARABLE    ROOTS. 
CEDE,  CEED,  CESS,  tO  gO.  j        CUR,  CUES,  tO  mil. 

CEiYE,  CEPT,  to  take.  DicT,  to  say,  to  speak. 

CLUDE,  CLU8,  to  shut.  I     DucE,  DUCT,  to  lead. 

rivatlves  formed  ?  19.  What  is  a  Prefix  ?  What  is  a  Suffix  ?  What  is  the  force 
of  prefixes  and  suffixes?  Illustrate  this  with  the  prefix  un  and  the  suffix  ntss. 
20.  From  what  Bort  of  roots  do  some  derivatives  come  ?  Give  examples.  Prom 
vhat  language  are  theBC  inseparable  roots  mostly  derived  f 


INSEPARABLE   ROOTS. 


15 


FBOT,  Fici,  to  do,  make. 
PEK,  to  bear,  to  carry. 
FUSE,  to  pour. 
JECT,  to  cast 
LATE,  to  bear,  to  carry. 
LECT,  to  choose,  to  gather. 
LUDE,  us,  to  play. 
MIT,  MISS,  to  send. 
PEL,  PUL8,  to  drive. 


PEXD,  PENS,  to  hang. 
PONE,  POSE,  to  place. 
poKT,  to  carry. 

8CHIBE,  8CRII»T,  tO  Write. 

BIST,  to  stand. 

TAIN,  TENT,  tO  hold. 

TEND,  TENS,  to  stretch. 
TRACT,  to  draw. 
VENE,  VENT,  to  oome. 


EXERCISE. 

spell  and  analyze  the  follotcing  derivatives: — [Thus : — Heceite  is 
a  derivative  from  the  inseparable  root  ceive,  to  take ;  re  is  a  pre- 
fix.— Mission  is  a  derivative  from  the  inseparable  root  miss,  to 
send;  ion  is  a  suffix. — Copartner  is  a  derivative  from  the  primi- 
tive PART ;  CO  is  a  prefix,  ner  a  snffix.]  Tension ;  contradict ;  in- 
vented ;  susceptible ;  translate ;  tractable ;  confuse ;  prevent ;  suf- 
ficient ;  ductile  ;  conference  ;  scrijiture  ;  postpone  ;  subject ; 
inducement;  repel;  averting;  suppose;  illusive. 


LESSON  V 


PREFlXEa 


[For  young  elasseSy  divide  the  foXUming  List  and  Exercise  into 
three  lessons^  giving  one  third  o/each  at  a  time.] 

21.  A  list  of  the  most  common  prefixes  follows; 
learn  their  meanings.  It  will  be  seen  that  some  of  them 
have  different  forms.  In  most  cases,  this  is  because  tlie 
final  letter  is  changed,  to  correspond  with  the  first  let- 
ter of  the  primitive  or  root.  Thus  we  have  ac-climate, 
at-tend,  in  stead  of  ad-climate^  ad-tend. 


L,  1.  in,  on. 
2.  [or  an],  destitute  of,  want 

of. 
8.  [or  AB,  ABs],  from,  away. 


AD  [AO,  AF,  AO,    AL,    ax,    AP,   Alt, 
AS,  at],  to. 

ANTE,  before. 

ANTi  [antJ,  opposed,  opposite  to. 


16 


LIST   OF   THE   MOST   COMMON   PREFIXES. 


BE,  by,  to  make. 

Bi,  two. 

oiEcuM,  around. 

CON  [go,  col,  com,  ooe],  together, 
a  joint. 

contra  [oonteo,  counter], 
against. 

DB,  from,  down,  to  make,  to  de- 
prive of. 

DI8  [diJ,  apart,  to  remove,  not. 

EN  [em],  in,  to  make,  to  make  or 
put  in. 

EX  [e,  EC,  ef],  out,  from,  beyond. 

IN  [iG,  iL,  iM,  ie],  to  make,  to 
put  in,  not. 

INTER,  between. 


ins,  wrong,  ill. 

oB  [oc,  OF,  op],  before,  against, 

OUT,  beyond,  better. 

PER,  through,  thoroughly. 

PRE,  before. 

PRO,  forth,  forward,  for. 

RE,  back,  again. 

SE,  from,  apart,  out. 

8EMI,  half. 

SUB    [sue,     SUF,     BUG,    SUP,     SUE, 

bus],  under,  after. 
SUPER  [supra,  sur],  ovct,  above, 

beyond. 
TRANS  [tran,  tra],  over,  across. 
ULTRA,  beyond. 
UN,  to  remove,  not. 


EXERCISE. 

.  Spell  and  define  tTie  following  derivatives.  They  a/re  arranged 
uitJi  their  prefixes  in  the  same  order  as  those  in  the  List.  When  a 
prefix  has  several  meanings^  one  derivative  is  given  to  illustrate  each. 
[Thus : — J.blaze — spell — in  a  blaze,  ^fire — spell — on  fire.  -Aceph- 
alous— spell — destitute  of  a  head.  -4warchy,  want  of  govern- 
ment, &c.] 

-4blaze;  afire;  acephalous;  anarchy;  avert;  aJ^tract;  ap- 
pend; assist;  anteroom  \  a?iif- American ;  antarctic;  inside;  le- 
numb;  hiiovva.  (having  two  forms);  circwmvent;  c<?7wpose ;  co- 
tenant  ;  contradict ;  ^Zetain  ;  decTj ;  tZebase  ;  (Zefame ;  dUdXe ;  dis- 
burden  ;  <Zwagreeable  ;  «?itwine  ;  enrich  ;  embody ;  educe ;  earclude  ; 
ea;ceed ;  iwpurple  ;  incase;  irrational;  interlace;  disbelieve; 
misfortune  ;  o/fer  ;  oZgect' ;  outmoxch. ;  outsoil ;  j^erceive  ;  perfect ; 
preoccupy ;  produce ;  jsropel ;  jproconsul ;  repay ;  reprint ;  secede ; 
seclude  ;  select ;  semitone  ;  swJofiicer  ;  succeed ;  swrmount ;  snper- 
scribe ;  superhuman ;  transcribe ;  traTisport ;  wZtramontane  (be- 
yond the  mountains) ;  -wnload ;  wnfit. 

Arranged  promiscuously : — Collect;  suffix;  embroil;  apportion; 
imprison;  supravulgar;  anti-republican;  antedate;  deject;  illegal; 
effuse;  accede;  controvert,*  allure;  dispirit;  infirm. 


LIST  OF   TUE   MOST   COMMON    SUFFIXES. 


17 


LESSON  VI. 

SUFFIXES. 

[For  young  classes^  divide  the  folhwing  List  and  Exercise  into 
two  lessons^  giving  one  half  of  each  at  a  time.] 

22.  A  List  of  the  most  common  suffixes  follows; 
learn  their  meanings. 


ABLE,  iBLK,  iLE,  that  may  or  can 
be,  worthy  of  being. 

AOE,  a  place  where,  the  cost  of, 
state  or  rank  of,  act  of. 

AL,  relating  to,  the  act  of. 

AN,  AB,  IAN,  relating  to,  one  who. 

ABD,  18T,  OR,  one  who. 

ATE,  to  make,  made  like,  pos- 
sessed of. 

ED,  did,  possessed  of. 

EK,  one  who  is, 

EN,  to  make,  made  of. 

EB,  more,  one  who. 

E8,  8,  more  than  one,  does. 

E88,  ixE,  IX,  a  female. 

B8T,  most,  dost 


FTJL,  OUB,  E0U8,  lOUB,  Y,  full  of. 

FY,  iFY,  izB,  to  make. 

HOOD,  DOM,  8H1P,  the  State,  rank, 

domain  of. 
INO,  ANT,  ENT,  Continuing  to. 
ION,  MENT,  URE,  the  act  of. 
ISM,  the  state  of  being,  system 

of. 
b:in,  let,  ling,  ook,  ulb,  oitle,  a 

little. 
LESS,  without,  that  can  not  be. 
LY,  in  a  (        )  manner,  like. 
NESS,  OE,  CY,  iTY,  TY,  the  State 

or  quality  of  being. 
SOME,  ISH,  somewhat. 
BY,  EBY,  the  art  or  practice  of. 


EXERCISE. 

Spell  and  define  the  following  derivatives.  They  are  arranged 
with  their  suffixes  in  the  same  order  as  those  in  the  List.  [Tims  :— 
ChargeoZ*^ — spell — that  may  be  charged.  B-onorable — spell — 
worthy  of  being  honored.  Moora^« — spell — a  place  where  to  moor, 
Ac] 

ChargeaJ?«;  honorable;  moorage;  "pWotage ;  iteerage;  mar- 
r\age;  autumnal;  acquittal;  Chilian;  columnar;  guardian; 
dnWard;  psalmist ;  grantor;  yaWdate  ;  giohate;  fortnna^«;  kicked; 
good-humor«i ;  eraploy^tf;  shorten;  hempim;  quicker;  keop«*/ 
fox«*;  way»;  crush**;  sit*;  priest^w;  testatrix;  quickew^;  keep- 
est;  fe&rful;  pompot/*;  watery;  ju8t(/y;  m&nhood;  judgeship; 
Vingdom;  heating;  indent;  miaaion;  sensualum;  protestant- 


18  ANALYSIS   OF   WORDS. 

ism;    iBxnhlcin;    tesiTless;  sateless;   rashly;  queenly;    oddity ^ 
sourness;  lonesome;  blackisA;  heraldry;  buffoonery. 


LESSON   VII. 

ANALYSIS     OF     WORDS. 

23.  Formation  of  Derivatives. — A  derivative  may 
be  formed  by  uniting  two  or  more  prefixes  or  suffixes 
with  a  primitive  or  inseparable  root ;  as, 

i?e-«ar-port,  to  carry-out-again. 

JvLSt-ifi/-ing,  contijiuing-to  w?ai'c-just. 

Re-col-leci-ion-s^  more  than  one-act  of-gAthermg-iopether-again. 

A  derivative  may  be  formed  by  uniting  a  prefix  or 
suffix  with  a  compound;  as,  good-humor-^<^,  having 
good-humor. 

.   24.  Formation  of  Compound  "Words. — Compounds 
may  be  formed  by  uniting, 

1.  Two  primitives ;  as,  moon-beam. 

2.  A  primitive  and  a  derivative ;  as,  bright-eyed. 

Analysis. — Bright  is  a  primitive ;  eyed  is  a  derivative  from  the  primi- 
tive eye,  meaning  having  eyes;  bright-eyed  is  a  compoimd,  meaning  having 
bright  eyes. 

3.  Two  derivatives ;  as,  brightest-eyed. 

Analysis. — Brightest  is  a  derivative  from  the  primitive  bright,  mean- 
ing most  bright ;  eyed  is  a  derivative  from  the  primitive  eye,  meaning  hav- 
ing eyes ;  brightest-eyed  is  a  compomid,  meaning  having  the  most  bright 
eyes. 

4.  An  inseparable  root  and  a  primitive ;  as,  multi- 
form. 

Analysis. — Multi  is  an  inseparable  root,  meaning  many ;  form  is  a 
primitive;  multiform  is  a  compound,  meaning  having  many  forms. 

5.  Two  inseparable  roots  ;  as,  geography. 

2S.  How  may  k  derivative  be  formed  ?    Give  examples.    How  else  may  a  deriv* 


ANALYSIS   OF   WORDS.  19 

AsALYsts. — Geo  is  an  inseparable  root,  meaning  the  earth;  graphy 
to  an  inskjparable  root,  meaning  a  description ;  gcofjraphy  is  a  compound, 
meaning  a  description  of  the  earth. 

25.  The  most  important  roots  that  enter  into  com- 
pound words  are  orapuy,  a  description  or  history  of, 
and  LOGY,  the  science  of,  or  a  treatise  on.  They  appear 
in  many  words,  combined  with  other  roots  ;  such  as 

Bio,  Hfe.  I  Geo,  the  earth. 

Etono,  a  nation.  I  Mytho,  a  fable. 

EXERCISE. 

Spell  and  analyze^  according  to  the  forma  given  above : — Re6n- 
force;  brightening;  seemingly;  unattracted ;  inadvertently;  far- 
sighted  ;  gentlemanly ;  powder-horn  ;  son-in-law ;  commander- 
in-chief;  battering-ram;  wood-pecker;  pew-holder;  unhoped- 
for; riduig-schools ;  watering-places;  biography;  geography; 
ethnology;  mythology. 


LESSON  YIII. 

RULES     OP     SPELLING. 

26.  In  forming  compounds,  the  simple  words  are  put 
together  without  change  ;  as,  green-house. 

In  forming  derivatives,  a  prefix  is  joined  to  a  primi- 
tive witliout  change  ;  as,  deform. 

On  adding  a  suffix,  the  primitive  is  changed  in  some 
cases,  but  not  in  others. 

atlve  be  formed  f  24.  What  Is  the  flrat  mode  mentioned  tn  which  a  eomponnd 
Inay  be  formed!  The  second  model  Analyze  brighleyed.  The  third  model 
Ai\9>\yto  brighteatfyed.  The  fourth  mode  I  Analyre  mi^/i/brtn.  The  fifth  model 
Analyxe  gnfrap/iy.  25.  What  are  the  moist  important  roots  that  enter  into  com- 
pound wordal  Mfntion  M)mo  other  inseparable  roots,  with  which  they  are  oom- 
pounded,  and  their  mcanlngii. 

26.  What  change  Is  nuule  in  forming  compounds  I    In  forming  derlTatlres  with 


20  EXILES   OF   SPELLING. 

When  the  suffix  ness  is  added  to  the  primitive  neaty  no  change  is 
made ;  the  derivative  is  neat-ness.  When  it  is  added  to  happy^  the  final 
y  is  changed  to  i ;  the  derivative  is  happi-ness. 

27.  Rules  of  Spelling. — ^The  following  rules  cover 
most  cases  in  which  a  change  is  made  in  the  primitive 
on  the  addition  of  a  suffix : — 

Etjle  I. — Reject  the  final  6  of  a  primitive,  when  a 
suffix  is  added  commencing  with  a  vowel ;  as,  lie,  li-ar. 

But  retain  final  e,  when  preceded  by  e  or  o,  if  the  suffix  added  is  able 
or  ing :  as,  agree,  agreeable  ;  shoe,  shoeing. 

Eetain  final  e,  when  preceded  by  c  or  g,  if  the  suffix  added  is  able  or 
<ms :  as,  notice,  noticeable  ;  outrage,  oxitrageous. 

Rule  II. — Reject  e  or  o  from  words  ending  in  er 
or  6>r,  when  the  suffix  ance,  ess,  ix,  or  ous  is  added : 
as,  enter,  entr-ance  /  testator,  testatr-ix. 

But  in  many  cases  e  or  o  is  retained :  as,  cancer,  cancerous  ;  author, 
authoress. 

Rule  III. — Reject  the  final  le  of  a  primitive,  if  pre- 
ceded by  a  consonant,  when  the  suffix  ly  is  added ;  as, 
feeble,  feeb-ly. 

Rule  IY. — Double  the  final  consonant  of  a  mono- 
syllable, if  preceded  by  but  one  vowel,  when  a  suffix  is 
added  commencing  with  a  vowel:  as,  stir,  stirring; 
quit,  quitting. 

But  final  X  is  never  doubled ;  as,  ox,  oxen. 

Rule  Y. — Double  the  final  consonant  of  any  word 
accented  on  the  last  syllable,  if  preceded  by  but  one 

a  prefix?  In  forming  derivatives  with  a  suffix?  Give  examples.  27.  Recite 
Rule  I.,  for  the  rejection  of  final  e.  [Examples  are  always  to  be  given  with  Rules 
and  Exceptions.]  In  what  two  cases  is  final  «  retained  ?  Recite  Rule  II.,  for  the 
rejection  of  c  or  o.  Is  e  or  o  always  rejected  ?  Recite  Rule  III.,  for  the  rejection 
of  final  le.  Recite  Rule  IV.,  for  doubling  the  final  consonant  of  a  monosyllable. 
What  consonant  is  never  doubled?  Recite  Rule  V.,  for  doubling  the  final  conso- 
nant of  a  word  accented  on  the  last  syllable.  In  what  case  is  the  final  consonant 
not  doubled  ?  Recite  Rule  VI.,  relating  to  the  final  y  of  a  primitive.  When  must 
no  change  be  made  ?  What  Ib  the  first  exception  relating  to  final  y  7  What  id  the 
aecond  exception  t 


RULES  OF  SPEIXma.  21 

vowel,  when  a  suffix  is  added  commencing  with  a  vowel ; 
as,  bestir,  bestirring. 

But  in  tliifl  case  and  the  last  there  is  no  doubling,  if  the  final  consonant 
is  preceded  by  another  consonant  or  by  two  vowels:  as,  damp^  damper; 
roomy  roomy ;  uncurl^  uneurUd;  defraud,  defrauded. 

Rule  YI. — Change  the  final  y  of  a  primitive  to  i, 
when  it  is  preceded  by  a  consonant  and  a  suffix  is  added 
not  commencing  with  i;  as,  try,  tried. 

But  make  no  change  when  a  vowel  precedes  y;  as,  toy,  toy-ed:  or 
before  a  sufiSz  commencing  with  i ;  as,  try,  try-ing. 

Final  y  is  sometimes  changed  to  e  before  the  snflBx  ou9 ;  as,  plenty, 
plenteoiu. 

Final  y  is  sometimes  rejected  before  a  suffix  commencing  with  »  or  o ; 
as,  sympathy,  sympatk-ize  ;  felicity,  felicit-ous. 

EXEBCISB. 

Spell  and  define  the  following  derivatives.  State  what  change 
i»  made  informing  each,  and  give  the  rule.  [Thus: — Citia — spell 
— is  a  derivative,  meaning  more  than  one  city.  The  final  y  of  the 
primitive  city  is  changed  to  i  before  the  suffix  es,  according  to  Rule 
VI.,  "  Change  the  final  y  of  a  primitive,"  &c.]  Driver  (drive-er) ; 
agitation  ;  Roman  ;  hindrance  (hinder-ance)  ;  wondrous  ;  idly 
(idle-ly)  ;  horribly ;  funny  (fun-y)  ;  spotted  ;  quizzing ;  impellest 
(impel-est)  ;  remittal ;  jollity  (jolly-ty)  ;  heaviness  ;  fanciful ; 
bounteous  (bounty-ous) ;  piteous;  eulogize  (eulogy-ize) ;  waitress ; 
loathing ;  dimmer ;  arrival ;  demurred ;  spinner ;  empress ;  beaa- 
teoufl;  ugliest;  visibly;  administratrix. 


LESSON  IX. 

SYLLABICATION. 

28.  In  spelling,  divide  a  word  into  its  syllables,  and 
spell  and  pronounce  each  syllable  separately. 

29.  In  writing,  sometimes  from  want  of  room  part 

v.  In  ipelUiif ,  what  must  b«  done  t   29.  In  writing,  what  Manetimea  bappena  t 


22  RULES   OF   SYLLABICATION. 

of  a  word  has  to  be  carried  to  the  next  line.  In  this 
case,  divide  the  word  after  a  complete  syllable,  and 
place  a  hyphen  at  the  end  of  the  line  to  connect  the 
separated  parts ;  as,  "  De- 

lays are  dangerous." 

30.  Hence  we  mnst  know  how  to  divide  words  into 
syllables.     This  process  is  called  Syllabication. 

31.  EuLES  OF  Syllabication. — In  syllabication,  the 
ear  is  our  chief  guide.  In  some  words,  the  syllables  are 
so  marked  that  they  are  easily  distinguished,  as  in  un- 
cer-tain-ty.  In  others,  however,  the  proper  division 
is  not  so  clear,  and  then  the  following  rules  will  prove 
of  service : — 

KuLE  I. — Join  consonants  to  the  vowels  whose  sound 
they  modify;  as,  mel-on^ — not  me-lon^  because  the  I 
modifies  the  sound  of  the  e.     So,  rem-e-dy^  reg-u-lar-i-ty. 

Rule  II. — Make  prefixes  distinct  syllables  when  it 
can  be  done  without  violating  Rule  I. ;  as,  de-fine^  re- 
call. 

When  a  vowel  sound  in  the  prefix  is  modified  by  a  consonant  in  the 
primitive,  this  consonant  is  joined  to  the  prefix,  according  to  Rule  I.  Thus 
we  divide  def-i-ni-tion,  not  de-Ji-ni-iion  ;  rec-om-mend,  not  re-com-mend. 

Rule  ITT. — Make  suffixes  distinct  syllables  unless 
they  coalesce  in  sound  with  what  precedes :  as,  tend-ed, 
not  ten-ded ;  in-vest-ing,  not  in-ves-ting  ;  di-vid-ed,  not 
dirvi-ded. 

But  ab-horred,  walked;  here  the  sufiSx  ed  coalesces  with  what  precedes, 
and  therefore  does  not  form  a  distinct  syllable. 

How  must  the  word  be  divided  in  this  case  ?  30.  What  is  Syllabication  ?  31.  In 
dividing  words  into  syllables,  by  what  are  we  chiefly  guided  ?  In  what  cages  will 
rules  be  found  necessary  ?  Recite  Rule  I.,  relating  to  consonants.  Recite  Rule  II., 
relating  to  prefixes.  What  is  done  when  a  vowel  sound  in  the  prefix  is  modified 
by  a  consonant  in  the  primitive?  Recite  Rule  III.,  relating  to  suffixes.  Give  ex- 
amples in  which  ed  does  not  form  a  distinct  syllable.  Recite  Rule  IV.,  relating 
to  compound  words.    Recite  Rule  V.,  relating  to  certain  terminations,  and  give 


BULBS  OF   6TLLABICATI0N.  23 

Rule  TV. — Make  syllabic  divisions  between  the  sim- 
ple words  that  unite  to  form  a  compound ;  as,  where-aa. 

Rule  V. — Never  divide  the  following  terminations, 
and  others  that  form  one  syllable : — 

8I0N,  pronounced  »/mn,  as  in  ex-ten-*ion. 

or  zhun^  "  vision, 

TioN,  "  Dhun  "  mo-tion, 

oiAL,  "  »hal^  "  special. 

TiAL,  "  shaly  "  pres-i-den-tid, 

CEOU8,  "  8hu8y  "  her-ha-eeoug. 

OEOUS,  "  ju8y  "  cou-ra-geous. 

cious,  "  «//««,  "  ti-ciou8. 

Tious,  "  «Am«,  "  cansci-en-tiotis. 

Rule  YI. — When  two  consonants  come  together  and 
it  can  be  done  without  violating  Rule  III.,  or  when  a 
consonant  is  doubled  before  a  vowel,  divide  between 
the  two  consonants;  as,  Uir-han^for-hid-dmg. 

82.  DiiERESis. — Two  o'«  generally  unite  to  form  a  diphthong,  as  in  »o<m^ 
foot.  In  some  words,  however,  they  do  not  thus  unite,  but  belong  to 
separate  syllables,  as  in  co-op-er-ate.  This  is  shown  by  placing  two  dots, 
called  a  Diaeresis,  over  the  second  o  (o). 

Tlie  Diseresis  consists  of  two  dots  placed  over  the  lat- 
ter of  two  vowels  that  would  otherwise  fonii  a  diph- 
thong, t6  show  that  they  belong  to  separate  syllables ; 
as,  cooperaUy  preexistent,  aeronaut. 

When  one  of  the  two  vowels  belongs  to  a  prefix,  a  hyphen  may  be  used 
in  stead  of  the  diaeresis ;  as,  co-operate,  pre-exisierU. 

BXERCISE. 

Spell  the  following  word*,  dividing  them  into  syllables: — Oalioo*, 
market ;  balance ;  business ;  inseparable ;  ocean ;  aerostation  ;  re- 
entering;   destroyed;    transgression;    serviceable;    button-hole; 

example*.  Recite  Ral«  VI.,  for  dividing  between  two  consonants.  82.  How 
are  two  o'«  t(onerally  soanded  f  How,  when  two  dots  are  placed  over  the  second 
o  7  Of  what  doe*  tbe  Dianali  ooDtlit  t  When  may  the  hyphen  be  need  Inatead 
of  ibadlareeUI 


24  FOEMS   or    THE   LETTEES- 

giddy-brained;  providential;  liquorice;  quotient;  transientness; 
plenteouslj;  gorgeous;  unfashionable;  voracious;  re-admitted; 
zoology;  reformation;  irreproachable;  apathy. 


LESSON   X. 

FORMS    OF    THE    LETTERS. 

33.  EoMAN  LettekSc — The  letters  that  form  the  bulk 
of  priuted  matter  in  English  were  first  used  at  Rome  in 
1467.     They  are  hence  called  Roman  Letters. 

34.  Italics. — Besides  Roman  Letters,  we  use  others 
that  slant,  as  in  this  clause.    These  are  called  Italics. 

35.  Italics  are  often  used  for  emphatic  words,  foreign 
terms,  the  names  of  vessels  and  newspapers,  and  exam- 
ples of  rules  or  definitions. 

"  /  think  the  Evening  Journal  is  wrong  when  it  says  that  the  prince 
and  his  valet  de  chamhre  sailed  in  the  Great  Western  on  Saturday." — Why 
is /italic?     Evening  Journal ?     Valet  de  chambre ?     Great  Western? 

36.  In  the  Bible,  italics  are  used  for  a  different  purpose.  The  Old 
Testament  was  written  mostly  in  Hebrew,  the  New  Testament  in  Greek. 
When  these  were  translated  into  English,  it  was  found  necessary  to  supply 
here  and  there  words  not  found  in  the  original  languages,  to  make  the 
meaning  clearer.     The  words  thus  suppUed  were  put  in  italics. 

37.  Small  Letters  and  CAPnALS. — Every  letter  has 
two  forms  :  as,  a,  A  ;  5,  B,  They  are  distinguished  as 
Small  Letters  and  Capitals. 

By  looking  at  any  printed  page,  it  will  be  found  that  it  consists  chiefly 
of  small  letters,  but  that  certain  words,  such  as  those  commencing  sen* 
tences,  begin  with  capitals.  Rules  for  the  use  of  capitals  will  be  givea 
hereafter. 

EXERCISE. 

Spell  and  define  the  derivatives  formed  hy  uniting  the  fol- 

33.  What  are  the  letters  mostly  used  in  our  English  books  called  ?  Whence 
did  they  get  the  name  ?  34.  What  are  Italics  ?  36.  For  what  are  italics  used  ?  36. 
For  what  are  italics  used  in  the  Bible?  37.  How  many  forms  has  every  letter! 
What  are  they  called  f    Which  constitute  the  greater  part  of  a  printed  page  ? 


THK  PARTS  OF  BPEEOn.  25 

loioing  primitives  and  suffixes^  making  such  changes  as  are  required 
hy  the  Jiules  in  §  27 : — Join-er  (one  who  joins)  ;  employ-er ;  begin- 
er ;  plunder-or  ;  jolly-er  ;  rob-er ;  cobble-cr ;  interpret-er ;  steady- 
er ;  stcady-ing ;  Bteady-ness  ;  coy-nesa  ;  exocutor-ix  ;  fox-es ; 
fog-y;  stay-ing;  fly-ing;  fly-es;  vile-ly;  terrible-ly;  gun-ery; 
censuro-ablo ;  pronounce-able ;  omit-ed  ;  offer-ed;  beautify-ed; 
beaatify-ing ;  plan-ing;  plane-ing;  complain-ing ;  box-ing;  di&-< 
agree-ing. 


LESSON  XI. 

THE   PARTS   OF   SPEECH. 

38.  The  Parts  of  Speech. — ^Words  are  the  signs 
of  ideas.  In  forming  sentences,  we  combine  different 
kinds  of  ideas,  and  therefore  use  different  kinds  of 
words. 

lAtth  dogs  and  k'UUns  play  gracefully. — Observe  the  diflfcrent  uses  of^ 
the  words  in  this  seDtencc.  Dogs  and  kittens  are  used  to  desigDate  cer- 
tain animala ;  and  is  used  to  connect  dogs  and  kittens  ;  little^  to  describe 
tliem  ;  play^  to  tell  what  they  do ;  gracefully^  to  tell  how  they  play. 

39.  The  English  language  contains  over  100,000 
words.  Tliey  are  divided  into  nine  classes,  called  Parts 
of  Speech,  distinguished  by  the  use  that  is  made  of 
them  in  sentences. 

40.  Sentence-building. — Every  thing  has  a  name. 
There  is  a  large  class  of  words,  therefore,  made  up  of 
the  names  of  things.  These  are  called  Nouns.  Heiiry^ 
Mary^  dog^  houm^  <fec.,  are  names  of  different  things, 
and  therefore  nouns. 

88.  What  are  Word*  t  Why  do  we  um  different  kinds  of  words  t  Point  out 
ho  anes  of  the  several  words  in  the  sentenoe  JMUi  dog$  and  kittens  play  frac^uUy. 
oO.  How  many  words  does  the  English  lanffnage  eontaln  t  How  are  thoy  di\1ded  t 
4a  Of  what  doee  the  first  class  of  words  consist  t  What  are  the  names  of  things 
called  t  When  we  name  an  object,  whnt  further  do  we  generally  do  t  What  are 
words  that  affirm  called!  With  what  two  parts  of  speech  may  we  form  a  sen* 
tencel    Give  an  example.    Do  we  generally  stop  here  t    Tell  what  kind  of  dojpt 


26  THE  PARTS   OF   SPEECH. 

"We  seldom  name  an  object  without  affirming  some" 
thing  about  it.  Words  that  affirm,  are  called  Yerbs. 
Henry  reads — Mary  sang — Dogs  harh  ;  reads,  sang, 
harlc,  affirm  something  about  Henry,  Mary,  dogs,  and 
are  therefore  verbs. 

.  We  may  form  a  sentence  with  a  noun  and  verb 
alone ;  as,  Dogs  hark.  But  we  seldom  stop  here. 
Taking  the  noun  and  verb  as  the  basis,  we  may  join 
other  words  to  them,  to  express  additional  ideas,  and 
thus  build  up  longer  sentences. 

We  may  tell  what  hind  of  dogs  bark.  Cross  dogs 
harTc.  Words  that  tell  what  kind  of  things  is  meant, 
are  Adjectives. 

We  may  tell  how  they  bark.  Cross  dogs  harh 
LOUDLY.  Words  that  tell  how  a  thing  is  done,  are 
Xialled  Adverbs. 

The  prefix  ad  means  to.  Adverb  means  to  a  verb.  These  words  are 
80  called  because  they  are  jomed  to  verbs.  The  adverb  loudiy  is  joined 
to  the  verb  bark. 

We  may  tell  at  whom  they  bark.  Cross  dogs  harh 
loudly  AT  STRANGERS.  Strangers  is  a  noun,  because  it 
is  a  name ;  and  the  little  word  at,  which  shows  the 
relation  between  the  verb  harh  and  the  noun  strangerSj 
is  called  a  Preposition. 

We  may  tell  something  else  that  dogs  do.  Cross 
dogs  harh  loudly  at  strangers  and  BnE  them. — Bite 
affirms,  like  hark,  and  is  therefore  a  verb.     And,  which 

connects  the  two  verbs,  is  called  a  Conjunction.    Them 

*- 

btirk.  What  are  words  that  tell  what  kind  of  things  la  meant  called  ?  Tell  how 
chey  hark.  What  are  words  that  tell  how  a  thing  is  done  called  ?  What  is  the 
meaning  of  the  word  orfrerft?  Why  are  these  words  bo  called  ?  Tell  at  whom  the 
dogs  hark.  What  does  the  little  word  at  show  ?  What  is  it  called  ?  What  else 
may  we  tell  about  the  dogs  ?  What  does  and  do  ?  What  is  it  called  f  How  is 
them  nsedt  What  is  it  called  ?  If  we  mean  some  particular  dogs  and  strangers, 
what  word  do  we  introduce  t    What  is  the  called  I    If  we  wish  to  call  atteiition  to 


THE   PARTS  OF  SPEECH.  Zt 

Is  used  in  stead  of  the  noun  strangers,  because  it  would 
sound  ill  to  say,  harh  loxuUy  at  strangers  and  bite 
strangers.  T/ufn  and  all  other  words  used  in  stead  of 
nouns  are  called  Pronouns. 

We  may  mean  some  particular  dogs  and  some  par- 
ticular strangers.  In  that  case  we  introduce  the  word 
the.  The  cross  dogs  hark  loudly  at  the  strangers  and 
bite  thein. — The  is  called  an  Article. 

We  may  call  attention  to  the  barking  of  the  dogs. 
Hark  !  the  cross  dogs  hark  loudly  at  the  strangers  and 
hite  them.  Hark,  and  other  words  thrown  unconnect- 
ed ly  into  a  sentence,  to  express  joy,  sorrow,  surprise, 
&c.,  are  called  Interjections. 

41.  Summing  up. — ^Tlms  we  find  nine  classes  of  words, 
or  Parts  of  Speech :  Nouns,  Pronouns,  Articles.  Ad- 
jectives, Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions, 
and  Interjections. 

Every  word  in  the  language  belongs  to  one  of  these  nine  classes.  To 
find  what  part  of  speech  any  given  word  is  in  a  sentence,  see  how  it  u 
used.     TI1L3  is  the  first  thing  required  in  Parsing. 

EXERCISE. 

What  part  of  speech  is  each  of  the  following  words  f 

Hark  !  the  cross  dogs  bark  loudly  at  the  strangers  and  bite  them. 

See !  the  playful  Iambs  frisk  gracefully  in  the  grass  and  nibble  it 

Lo !  the  glorious  sun  shines  brightly  on  the  hills  and  iUumiiies  them. 

(ri««  the  names  of  all  the  articles  you  can  think  qfthat  a  grocer 
sells ;  as,  sugar,  tea,  soap,  &o.  What  part  of  speech  are  these 
words  t 

Mention  all  the  adjectives  you  can  think  of  that  may  be  joined  to 
the  noun  boy ;  as,  a  cross  boy,  a  good  boy,  a  pretty  boy,  &c. 

Mention  all  the  terbs  you  can  think  of  that  may  be  joined  to 
the  horse ;  cw,  the  horse  neighs,  the  horse  trots,  the  horse  eats,  &o. 

tb«  btf king  of  the  doft,  what  do  we  My  t  What  is  haa-k  called  t  41.  To  sam  op, 
bow  many  part*  of  apeeoh  har*  w«  fouod  I  Name  them.  What  la  the  flnt  thing 
required  In  paraing  t 


28  THE  NOUN. 

Mention  all  the  adverbs  you  can  ihinh  of  that  may  he  joined  to 
the  horse  trots ;  6W,  the  horse  trots  slowly,  awkwardly,  &c 


LESSON   XII. 

NOUNS   AND   THEIR   CLASSES. 

42.  The  Noun. — ^The  first  part  of  speech  is  the 
IToun. 

A  Noun  is  a  word  used  as  a  name. 

43.  The  names  of  persons  are  nouns;  as,  Uve^  Saul^  La  Fayette^ 
Earl  Grayy  General  Jackson^  Miss  Ellen  Fry. 

The  names  of  places,  comitries,  mountains,  &c.,  are  nouns ;  as,  city^ 
toion,  village,  hill,  ocean,  Belgium,  Louisville,  Sahara,  Rocky  Mountains^ 
Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  names  of  things  that  can  be  seen,  heard,  felt,  &c.,  are  nouns ;  as, 
ice,  thunder,  books,  heat,  tables,  whispering. 

The  names  of  things  that  are  not  seen,  &c.,  but  simply  thought  of,  are 
nouns;  as,  science,  falsehood,  temperance,  diligence. 

The  names  of  letters,  figures,  numbers,  characters,  &c.,  are  nouns;  as, 
Fm  is  a  consonant ;  six  and  two  are  eight ;  plus  indicates  addition.  Em, 
six,  two,  eight,  phis,  are  nouns. 

Any  word  used  merely  as  a  word  is  a  noun.  When  it  is  so  used,  ths 
word  may  be  introduced  before  it ;  aa^  "  Gracefully  is  derived  from  grace- 
ful [that  is.  The  word  gracefully  is  derived  from  the  word  graceful]." 
"  Many  spell  [the  word]  busy  wrong."  Eere,  gracefully,  graceful,  and 
busy,  are  noims. 

44.  Classification  of  Nouns. — All  objects  of  the 
same  kind  have  the  same  general  name.  To  distinguish 
objects  of  the  same  kind,  we  give  each  a  name  of  its 
own  not  applicable  to  the  rest  of  its  class. 

Thus  all  great  elevations  of  land  are  called  mountains.  But  particular 
mountains  are  distinguished  by  particular  names ;  as.  Mount  Washington^ 

42.  What  is  the  firet  part  of  speech  ?  What  ia  a  Noun  ?  43.  Specify  some  of 
the  different  names  embraced  among  nouns,  and  give  examples.  When  is  any 
word  6  noun?  How  can  wo  tell  when  a  word  is  used  merely  as  a  word?  Give 
examples.  44.  What  objects  have  the  same  general  name?  How  do  we  distin- 
gui»h  objects  of  the  same  kind?    Illustrate  this.    It  follows  that  there  are  how 


COMMON   AND   PBOPKB  N0UN8.  29 

MowU  FaineeatkeTy  the  Alp»,  the  P\frtnee».  Hence  there  are  two  kinds 
of  noans,  the  names  of  classes  and  the  names  of  individaals. 

45.  Nouns  are  either  Common  or  Proper. 

A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  that  may  be  applied  to 
all  objects  of  tlie  same  kind  ;  as,  hoy^  nation^  cov/ntry 
island^  dog. 

A  Proper  Noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  object, 
which  can  not  be  applied  to  all  others  of  the  same 
kind  ;  as,  Richard^  (the)  Danes^  Peru,  Ireland,  Carlo, 

46.  Several  individuals  may  have  the  same  name.  There  are  many 
boys  called  Richard^  many  dogs  called  Carlo.  But  since  all  boys  are 
not  called  Richard,  nor  all  dogs  Carlo,  Richard  and  Carlo  are  proper 
nouns. 

47.  The  names  of  nations,  though  belonging  in  common  to  many  indi- 
viduals, distinguish  one  body  of  people  from  all  others  of  the  same  kind, 
Thoy  are  therefore  proper  nouns,  whether  applied  to  all  that  compose  the 
nation,  or  to  single  individuals ;  as,  the  Germans,  a  Tiirk. 

48.  Proper  nouns  always  begin  with  capitals.  See 
the  above  examples. 

49.  A  noun  usually  common  becomes  proper, 

1.  When  it  denotes  a  particular  event,  place,  &c.,  more  conspicuous 
or  familiar  than  others  of  the  same  name ;  as  the  Creation,  the  Square, 
the  Channel  (meaning  the  English  Channel). 

2.  WTien  it  denotes  an  inanimate  object  personified,  that  is,  addressed 
or  spoken  of  as  a  person ;  as,  **  Numberless  are  thy  blessings,  0  Health!" 
"  Winter  wraps  his  white  cloak  about  him."  "  Hope  whispers  in  the  ears 
of  the  young." — Here  Hcallh,  Winter,  Hope,  are  personified.  They 
must  be  parsed  as  proper  noxms,  and  must  commence  with  capitals. 

EXEBCISE. 

Mention  the  nouns  and  their  class : — Seven  metals  were  known 
to  the  ancients ;  namely,  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  tin,  lead,  and 
mercury. — Mercury  is  nearer  the  Sun  than  any  other  planet. — 

many  kindH  of  noana  f  Ab.  Nune  the  two  claMes  of  noana.  What  i*  a  Common 
Noun  t  Wlial  I*  n  I^pcr  Noon  t  40.  Is  a  name  belonging  to  Bevcral  individuals 
oommon  or  proper?  AMiy  aot  47.  What  do  the  luunccof  natiuna  diatinguiitht 
Are  th«y  eommon  or  proper  nouna  ?    48.  IIuw  must  proper  nooaa  always  begin  t 


30  SUBDIVISIONS   OF   COMMON   NOUNS. 

Homer  was  a  great  poet. — John  Milton  is  the  Homer  of  Eng- 
lish literature. — Noah,  and  his  three  sons,  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet, 
with  their  wives,  survived  the  Flood. — Pleasure  tries  to  entice 
the  young  from  the  paths  of  virtue. — The  Channel  is  noted  for 
its  rough  weather,  as  travellers  going  from  England  to  France 
often  learn  to  their  disgust. 


LESSON   XIII. 

SUBDIVISIONS  OF  COMMON  NOUNS. 

50.  Common  ]S"ouns  embrace  Collective,  Participial, 
Diminutive,  and  Abstract  ]S"ouns. 

51.  A  Collective  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  body  or  col- 
lection of  individuals ;  as,  nation,  mob,  society,  jury, 
herd,  swarm. 

52.  The  name  of  a  collection  of  objects  without  life  is  not,  in  most 
cases,  a  collective  noun.  Pih^  heap^  mass,  perfumery,  furniture,  stationery, 
&c.,  are  simply  common  and  not  collective  nouns. 

53.  A  Participial  Noun  is  the  name  of  an  action  or 

state,  ending  in  ing  ;  as,  "  Seeing  is  believing.-^ 

54.  A  Diminutive  Noun  is  the  name  of  something 
small  of  its  kind,  derived  from  a  primitive  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  suffix. 

Diminutives  are  formed  with  the  suffixes  kin,  let,  ling,  ocTc,  ule,  eule, 
cle,  icle,  et,  or  aster,  meaning  a  little.  Streamlet  (a  little  stream),  gosling 
(a  young  goose),  animalcule  (a  little  animal),  are  diminutives. 

55.  An  Abstract  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  or 
property;  as,  obstinacy,  benevolence,  smoothness,  sour 
ness. 


49.  What  Is  the  first  case  in  which  a  noun  nsually  common  becomes  propei  • 
What  is  the  second  case  ?  How  must  the  names  of  objects  personified  be  parsedf 
How  must  they  commence  ? 

60.  What  classes  are  embraced  among  common  nonns  i  51.  What  is  a  Collect- 
ive Noun  ?  52.  Are  pi7e,  Aco73,/Mrm7ure,  collective  nouns?  Why  not?  53.  Whai 
is  a  Participial  Noun  ?    64.  What  is  a  Diminutive  Noun  ?    Mention  the  suffixes 


EXERCISE   ON   NOUNS.  31 

66.  Proper  nouns  are  said  to  be  Complex,  when  they 
consist  of  several  names,  or  a  name  and  title ;  as,  Wilr 
liam  Umry  Harrison^  Lord  Edward  Talbot. 

EXERCISE. 

Mention  the  nount  and  their  clou.  [Thus:— iW^A  Carolina  is, 
a  complex  proper  noun ;  l)lacJcbird«  is  a  common  noun ;  flocks  is  a 
collective  common  noun,  &c.J  In  North  Carolina  blackbirds  are 
sometimes  seen  in  flocks  a  mile  long.— Musk  is  obtained  from  the 
musk-deer,  an  animal  of  great  agility,  found  in  Siberia  and  on  the 
Himalaya  Mountains.— Certain  tribes  of  Asia  are  tormented  by 
swarms  of  ants,  which  march  through  their  dwellings  in  little 
armies.— The  sweetness,  beauty,  and  modesty  of  the  violet  make 
me  admire  it  more  than  any  other  floweret.— Lying  and  swearing 
are  marks  of  a  base  mind. 

Complete  the  following  sentences  by  supplying  such  nouns  as  are 
indicated : — The  (proper  noun)  and  (proper)  are  rivers  of  North 
America.— A  soldier  should  have  great  (abstract)  and  (abstract). — 
A  poultry-yard  contains  many  (collective)  of  chickens,  (common\ 
and  (diminutive). — Immense  (collective)  of  bees  and  (collective)  of 
horses  are  found  in  the  (common)  of  Texas. — Crossing  a  (diminu- 
tive)^ we  saw  before  us  a  verdant  (common). — Sir  John  Franklin 
and  (complex  proper)  distinguished  themselves  by  explorations  in 
the  Arctic  (common). — Promenading,  (participial),  and  (parti- 
cipial)j  are  the  principal  amusements  at  a  watering-place. 


LESSON   XIV. 

THE    PERSON    OF   NOUNS. 

67.  Observe  these  three  sentences : — 

I,  James,  promise  to  go. 
James,  do  you  promise  to  go? 
James  promises  to  go. 
In  the  first  sentence,  James  is  represented  as  speaking ;  in  the  second, 

witii  which  dtmlnatlvM  are  formed.    66.  What  ii  an  Abetract  Noun  ?    66.  When 
are  proper  nouns  »ai<l  to  be  Complex  t 

67.  Repeat  the  timw  leatauoaa  preaantad.    How  ia  Jamea  repraaentad  in  the 


6£  PERSON  OF   NOUNS. 

as  spoken  to ;  in  the  third,  as  spoken  of.  To  denote  these  three  different 
relations,  we  say  that  in  the  first  sentence  the  noun  James  is  in  the  Jirst 
person;  in  the  second,  it  is  in  the  second  person;  in  the  third,  in  tlie  third 
person.    Every  noun  must  be  in  one  of  these  three  persons. 

58.  Person  is  that  property  which  distinguishes  o\y 
jects  as  speaking,  spoken  to,  or  spoken  of. 

59.  There  are  three  Persons ;  the  First,  the  Second, 
and  the  Third. 

The  First  Person  denotes  the  speaker ;  the  Second 
Person,  the  ohject  spoken  to  ;  the  Third  Person,  the  ob- 
ject spoken  of. 

First  Person. — I,  John  Adams,  president  of  the  United  States. — We 
mortals  are  short-lived. — Written  by  the  hand  of  me,  Timothy. — There  is 
little  virtue  in  us  men. 

Second  Person. — John  Adams,  you  were  once  president  of  the  United 
States. — 0  short-lived  mortals  ! — Go  to,  thou  fool ! — ^Answer  me,  je  friends 
of  liberty. 

Third  Person. — I,  John  Adams,  am  president  of  the  United  States. — 
All  mortals  are  short-lived. — The  fool  laughs  at  his  own  folly. — Ye  are  but 
pilgrims  in  the  land. 

60.  It  will  be  seen  from  these  examples  that  a  noun  has  the  same  form 
in  all  three  persons.  We  can  not,  therefore,  tell  its  person  by  its  form, 
but  must  ask  whether  it  denotes  an  object  speaking,  spoken  to,  or  spoken  of. 

61.  Most  of  the  nouns  met  with  in  sentences  are  in 
the  third  person.  The  names  of  things  without  life  are 
always  in  the  third  person,  unless  they  are  personified. 

62.  The  third  person  is  sometimes  used  for  the  first.  Thus  Winchester 
says,  "As  will  the  rest,  so  willeth  Winchester,^'' — in  stead  of  "so  will  /." 
Here  Winchester  uses  his  own  name  as  that  of  a  person  spoken  of,  and  the 
noun  Wincliester  is  in  the  third  person. 


first  Bentence  ?  How,  in  the  second  ?  How,  in  the  third  ?  How  do  we  denota 
these  different  relations  ?  58.  What  is  Person  ?  69.  Name  the  persons.  What  ip 
denoted  by  the  First  Person  ?  What,  by  the  Second  ?  What,  by  the  Third  ?  Givu 
examples  of  each.  60.  What  will  be  seen  from  these  examples  ?  How  are  we  to 
tell  the  i)er8on  of  a  noun  ?  61.  What  is  the  person  of  most  nouns  ?  Of  what  per- 
son are  the  names  of  things  without  life  ?    62.  Fur  what  is  the  third  person  some- 


NUMBEB.  33 

68.  The  third  person  \b  aim  sometimes  ased  for  the  second.  Thus, 
**  Let  not  my  iord  [third  person]  be  angry  with  his  servant ; "  where  the 
meaning  w,  "  My  lord  [second  person],  be  not  angry  with  thy  servant." 

CI.  In  formal  letters  and  invitations,  the  third  person  is  often  thus  used 
for  both  the  first  and  the  second.  Thus,  "  The  Secretary  of  State  has  the 
honor  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  Gov.  Winter''8  favor  of  the  8d  instant,  and 
begs  leave  to  reply,"  &c.  This  is  more  formal  than  if  the  Secretary  were 
to  write : — "  /  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  your  favor  of  the 
3d  instant,  and  beg  leave  to  reply,"  k.o. 

EXEBCISB. 

Mention  the  nouns,  their  class,  and  person,  [Thus : — Travelling 
is  a  participial  common  noun,  in  the  third  person.]  Travelling  is 
sometimes  hard  work. — The  last  words  of  Mohammed  were : — "  O 
God,  pardon  my  sins  I  Yes,  I  como  among  my  fellow-citizens  on 
high." — Angels  and  ministers  of  grace,  defend  us! — How  full  of 
sorrow  was  the  breast  of  tlie  Indian  chief  Logan,  when  ho  ex- 
claimed:— "Who  is  tliero  to  mourn  for  Logan?  Not  one." — 
Leading  the  way  over  a  hillock  which  lay  before  his  regiment,  he 
cried,  "Come  on,  my  men;  I,  your  colonel,  will  bo  the  first  to 
meet  the  foe." — Wo  Americans  do  every  thing  in  a  Lurry;  you 
Germans  have  more  patience  and  deliberation. 


LESSON   XV. 

THE   NUMBER   OF  NOUNS. 

One  year. 

Two  years ;  five  years  ;  ten  year^ ;  a  thousand  years. 

65.  Observe,  in  these  expressions,  that  when  one  is  spoken  of,  the  word 
year  is  used ;  when  more  than  one  are  referred  to,  the  form  changes  to 
yearn. 

66.  Kumber  is  that  property  which  distinguishes  ob- 
jects as  denoting  one  or  more  than  one. 

tiine«iiu«df    Give  Ml  pxample.    03.  For  what  else  Is  tho  third  pcnion  oomctimM 
naedt    04.  In  what  \*  the  third  perton  oAen  thua used  for  both  thu  flrat  mid  th« 
It    Give  an  example. 
flt.  What  la  to  be  obaerred  whaa  w«  lay  one  ytar,  two  yeart^  five  yeara7 


34  FORMATION  OF  THE  PLUKAL. 

67.  There  ai-e  two  numbers,  the  Singular  and  tlie 
Plural. 

The  Singular  denotes  one ;  the  Plural,  more  than  one. 

68.  Formation  of  the  Plural. — Rule  I. — To  form 
the  plural,  most  nouns  add  s  to  the  singular :  as, 
hat,  hat^/  dwarf,  dwarfs;  money,  moneys/  cuckoo, 
cuckoos. 

Til  final  is  sounded  as  in  ihink.  In  some  words  in  which  these  final 
letters  are  preceded  by  a  vowel,  when  s  is  added  for  the  plural,  their 
aound  changes  to  that  of  th  in  thu :  as,  path,  pa^/w ;  wreath,  vneaths  ; 
oath,  osiths, 

Rule  II. — IN^ouns  ending  as  follows  take  es  to  form 
their  plural : — 

1.  In  ch  not  sounded  like  Jc  ;  as,  torch,  torches. 

2.  In  s  and  sh :  as,  gas,  gas<?5  ;  gash,  gash(?5. 

3.  In  X  and  z  :  as,  tax,  tax^s  /  waltz,  waltz<?5. 

■  4.  In  i,  0,  or  u,  preceded  by  a  consonant :  as,  alkali, 
alkalies;  cargo,  cargoes;  gnu,  gnues. 

Exceptions  in  o. — Canto,  canto*;  duo-decimo,  duo-decimos;  grotto, 
grottos;  halo,  halos;  junto,  juntos;  lasso,  lassos;  major-domo,  major- 
domos  ;  memento,  mementos ;  octavo,  octavos ;  portico,  porticos ;  quarto, 
quartos :  sirocco,  siroccos ;  solo,  solos ;  tyro,  tyros. 

5.  Common  nouns  m  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  take 
eSy  and  in  so  doing  change  their  final  y  to  i  {Rule  YI, 
p.  21)  :  as,  fly,  Ries ;  obloquy,  obloqm'^. 

Observe  that  in  the  last  example  u  following  q  has  the  sound  of  to 
[phlokwy'\,  and  is  therefore  a  consonant 

Rule  III. — ^The  following  nouns  ending  in./  and  fe 


W.  What  is  Number  ?  67.  Name  the  numbers.  What  does  the  Singnlar  denote  I 
The  Plural?  68.  How  \b  the  plural  of  most  nouns  formed  (Rule  I.)?  What  re- 
mark is  made  about  nouns  ending  in  th  1  What  nouns  take  es  to  form  their  plural  ? 
Mention  the  exceptions  in  o,  that  form  their  plural  with  s  alone.  How  do  common 
nouns  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  form  their  plural  T  How  is  it  that  obloqtiy  falls 
under  this  rule  ?    How  do  eleven  nouna  in  /  aud  three  in  fe  form  their  plural 


FORMATION  OP  THE  PLURAL.  86 

form  their  plural  by  changing  f  or  fe  into  ve9  :  beef, 
hGiives ;  leaf,  leaver;  sheaf,  sheaw^/  thief,  thieve*/ 
loaf,  loaw«/  calf,  calw*;  half,  halu^*/  elf,  ely<^«/  self, 
%q\v€s  ;  shelf,  ^XiiAves ;  wolf,  wolz^t^*/  life,  liy<?5/  kuift^ 
knwea;  wife,  ^Nives. 

Witarf  makes  both  vharfx  and  wharven. 

Staff  (a  cane)  makes  tttaffn  and  staves.  In  the  second  form  the  a  ha» 
the  same  sound  as  in  tlie  first,  to  distinguish  the  word,  when  pronounced,' 
from  the  plural  of  »lave.  All  the  compounds  of  utaff,  and  staff  itself 
when  it  means  a  body  of  military  officers,  form  the  plural  by  adding  s ; 
as,  tipstaff,  tipstaffs. 

liule  I V. — Most  proper  nouns  take  s  to  form  their 
plural :  as,  Cato,  the  Cato«/  Antony,  the  Antony*. 

Proper  nouns  ending  in  s  and  x  take  es  to  fonn  their 
plural :  as,  Venus,  the  Venus^*/  Ajax,  the  Ajaxe*. 

Some  proper  nouns  ending  in  y,  in  frequent  use,  form  their  plural  by 
«:iianging  y  into  ies :  as,  Sicily,  the  Siciltc*  ;  Ptolemy,  the  Ptolemt««. 

EXERCISE. 

SpeU  and  define  the  plural  of  the  following  words :  [Thus  : — 
d-a-y-B^  more  than  one  day.]  Day ;  table  ;  niche ;  search  ;  beach ; 
guess ;  atlas ;  sash  ;  brush  ;  fox  ;  quiz ;  rabbi ;  halo  ;  echo  ; 
grotto;  solo;  colloquy;  calf;  chief;  knife;  stave;  staff  (cane); 
distaff;  Henry;  Emily;  Sicily;  Pythagoras;  Hercules;  Con- 
fucius;  Nero ;  monarch ;  roof;  balcony;  bench;  trio;  Judas; 
Cicero;  shelf;  gulf;  (a  generars)  staff;  sofa;  cadi;  dahlia; 
fuchsia. 

Spell  the  singular : — Cobblers;  chimneys;  enigmas;  sepulchres; 
porte-monnaies ;  mementos;  selves;  safes;  stitches;  enemies; 
hoofs ;  follies ;  canoes ;  folios ;  twos ;  toes ;  hippopotamuses ;  the 
Rosciuses ;  the  Alleghanios ;  the  Colfaxes. 

(Rule  III.)  t  Ol%o  these  nonns.  What  does  «rA<n/ make  Jn  the  pinralf  What 
dc»c«  tfqf,  a  cano,  mako  f  What  does  ttq/T,  a  body  of  military  officer*,  rankcf 
What  du  the  compounds  of  ataff  make  t  How  do  moat  proper  noana  form  their 
plural  I  How  do  proper  nouna  endiriit  in  «  and  X  form  their  irioralt  Uowdoiome 
proper  Doona  encUug  la  y  form  their  plurai  t 


36 


KOUJS'S   lEREGULAB   IN   THE   ELUKAL. 


LESSON  XYI^ 


Child, 

children. 

Foot, 

feet. 

Goose, 

geese. 

lice. 

Ox, 

oxen. 

mice. 

Tooth, 

teeth. 

men. 

Woman, 

women. 

IRREGULAR    TLURALS. 

69.  Nouns  Irregular  in  the  Plural. — ^The  follow- 
ing nouns  are  irregular  in  the  plural : — 

Sinff.  Flu.  Sing.  Plu.  Sing.  Phi. 

Louse, 
Mouse, 
Man, 

^O.  Compounds  in  which  these  words  stand  last,  form  their  plural 
similarly:  as,  boatman,  boat7«e;i;  eye-tooth,  eye-teeth;  gentlewoman^ 
gentleMJ07«en.  Words  that  end  in  7nan,  but  are  not  compounds  of  the 
word  man,  form  their  plural  regularly  by  annexing  s  :  as,  German,  Ger- 
mans ;  caiman,  caimans. 

^1.  Cowy  which  now  makes  cows,  formerly  made  kine. 

72.  Double  Plural  Forms. — The  following  nouns 
have  both  a  regular  and  an  irregular  plural,  with  differ- 

Irregular  Plural, 
brethren  (of  a  society). 
dice  (cubes  for  gaming). 
genii  (spirits). 
head  (of  cattle). 
indices  (algebraic  exponents). 
pease  (taken  in  bulk). 
pence  (an  amount  of  money). 
sail  (vessels). 

Y3.  IN'ouNS  Alike  in  both  !N"umbers. — Tlie  following 
are  alike  in  both  numbers : — Alms^  boss  (a  fish),  bellows, 


ent  meanings : — 

Singidar. 

Regular  Plural. 

Brother, 

brothers  (of  a  family). 

Die, 

dies  (stamps  for  coining). 

Genius, 

geniuses  (men  of  genius), 

Head, 

heads  (parts  of  the  body), 

Index, 

i7idexes  (tables  of  contents). 

Pea, 

peas  (distinct  grains). 

Penny, 

pennies  (distinct  coins). 

SaU, 

sails  (pieces  of  canvas). 

69.  What  does  cAiYd make  in  the  plural?  Foot!  Goose!  Mouse  1  Man?  0x7 
Tooth  7  Woman  ?  70.  What  compounds  of  these  words  form  their  plural  simi- 
larly ?  How  do  words  that  end  in  Tnan,  but  are  not  compounds  of  the  word  man, 
form  their  plural?  What  is  the  plural  of  boatman?  German  7  71.  What  is  the 
plural  of  cow  7  72.  What  are  the  two  plurals  of  brother,  and  their  meaning  ?  Of 
die 7  Genius?  Head?  Index?  Pea?  Pennt^?  Sail?    73.  Mention  the  nouns  alike 


NOONS  IHREOULAB  IN  THE  PLURAL.         37 

cannon^  corps  (pronounced  kore  in  the  singular,  korea  m 
the  plural),  deer,  grouse,  hose  (old  plural,  hosen),  means, 
odds,  rest  (that  which  remains,  those  who  rcmaui), 
scdnion,  series,  sheep,  species,  superjides,  swine,  vemmi 
(seldom  used  in  the  singular). 

74.  Summons  makes  both  summons  and  summonttes  in  the  plnral; 
gcdloKS^  gallows  and  gcdlowses ;  kecUheti^  heathen  and  heathens. 

75.  Fish  makes ^.s/i,  and  leas  frequently  ^«A««.  Fish  should  always  be 
used  when  a  quantity  is  spoken  of,  and  not  a  number  of  individuals ;  as, 
a  good  mess  of  fish, — The  compounds  of  fish  are  alike  in  both  numbers ; 
as,  two  codfish^  six  sword fish^  many  shellfish. 

The  names  of  different  kinds  of  fish  have,  for  the  most  part,  two 
plurals;  one  (commonly  used)  like  the  singular,  and  a  regular  form  in  s  or 
es.  Thus,  herring,  herring  and  herrings  ;  mackerel,  mackerel  and  mack- 
erels, kc.  When  a  quantity  is  spoken  of,  the  unchanged  form  should  be 
used :  as,  a  hundred  barrels  of  mackerel ;  a  basketful  of  trout. 

So,  the  word  fowl  and  the  names  of  certain  materials,  besides  their 
regular  plurals  in  «,  take  a  plural  form  like  the  singular  when  they  are 
spoken  of  m  bulk:  as,  flocks  oT  sea-fowl ;  altars  o(  brick;  a  load  o£  plank'. 

76.  Brace,  dozen,  pair,  and  seore,  besides  their  regular  plural  in  s,  take 
a  form  like  the  singular,  when  preceded  by  a  word  expressing  number. 
We  say,  fifty  brace  of  pheasants,  two  dozen  of  ale,  four  pair  of  stairs,  three 
score  and  ten ;  but,  fowls  are  sold  in  pairs^  pheasants  in  braces  ;  they  came 
by  dozens  and  scores. 

77.  Plural  of  Figures,  &c. — ^The  plural  of  figures, 
letters,  characters,  &c.,  is  formed  by  annexing  an  apos- 
trophe and  s  ('«) ;  as,  "She  must  make  her  4'^,  k^  +'*, 
and  ;'«  better." 

exercise. 
Farm  the  plural: — Foster-child;  club-foot;  bcangoosc;  field- 
mouse  ;  madman  ;  musk-ox  ;  wisdom-tooth  ;  tooth-brush ;  hors©- 

In  both  namhem.  74.  What  does  summons  make  in  the  plural  t  OaUows  1  Heathen  V 
75.  Fiahl  When  Bhontd  ^A  bo  used  for  the  plun\ll  "What  do  the  compound* 
ot  Juh  muko  In  the  plural  ?  What  do  the  names  of  different  kinds  of  flsh  make  in 
lh»  plural  f  Which  form  shoald  be  used  when  a  quantity  is  spoken  off  What 
other  words  follow  the  same  rale  ••  fish  in  their  plural  t  76.  Wimt  is  said  of  the 
plural  of  brace,  doten,  pair,  and  seers  7  Ulustrate  this.  77.  Uow  14  the  plural  of 
flxurea,  letters,  cbanMsten,  &o.,  formod  t 


38  PLUEAL  OF  COMrOUND  NOUNS. 

woman;  policeman;  Turcoman;  bellows;  sea-bass;  musk-deer; 
sun-fisb;  sturgeon;  blackfish;  water-fowl;  the  mayor's  \brothert 
or  brethren  ?] ;  the  [brothers  or  brethren  ?]  of  the  Independent  Order 
of  Odd  Fellows ;  back-gammon  is  played  with  [dies  or  dice  ?] ;  Ad- 
dison and  the  other  [geniuses  or  genii  ?]  of  Queen  Anne's  reign ; 
good  [geniuses  or  genii .?]  protect  thee ;  twenty  [heads  or  head  ?]  of 
oxen ;  the  [indexes  or  indices .?]  of  these  books  are  imperfect ;  a  bushel 
of  [peas  or  pease  ?] ;  four  [2yeas  or  pease  ?]  in  a  pod  ;  he  owes  me 
two  [pennies  or  pence .?] ;  two  bad  [pennies  or  pence .?] ;  the  [sail» 
or  sail  ?]  are  set ;  a  fleet  of  twenty-five  [sails  or  sail  ?\. 


LESSON  XYII. 

PLURAL  OF  COMPOUND  AND  COMPLEX  NOUNS. 

78.  Elements  of  Compolt^^d  Words. — The  simple 
words  tliat  enter  into  a  compound  word  are  called  its 
Elements. 

In  some  compounds,  these  elements  are  of  equal  im- 
portance, as  in  piano-forte.  In  others,  there  is  one 
leading  element,  which  the  others  merely  modify ;  as  in 
sister-in-law^  hanger-on^  in  which  sister  and  hanger  are 
the  leading  elements. 

T9.  Plural  of  Compound  IN'ouns. — Compound  Xouns, 
to  form  their  plural,  generally  vary  their  principal  ele- 
ment:  as,  step-son,  step-swi^;  woman-hater,  woman- 
haters ;  sister-in-law,  sisters -m-\s.w  \  knight-eiTant, 
1cnights-QrT2iTvt ;  cousin-german,  c^w^wi^-german  ;  hang- 
er-on, hangers-on ;  aide-de-camp,  aztZ^^-de-camp  ;  billet- 
doux,  hillets-donx ;  charge-d'-affaires,  charges-d^-aEoires, ; 
chef-d'-ceuvre,  chefs-d^-odviyre. 

78.  What  iB  meant  by  the  Elements  of  a  compound  word  ?  What  difference 
IB  noted  with  respect  to  the  elements  of  words  ?  79.  How  do  compound  nouns 
generally  form  their  plural  ?  Give  examples.  80.  What  compounds  take  the 
piu.-al  termination  at  the  end  t    81.  Wkat  is  the  plural  of  man-child  7    Manser- 


PLURAL  OF  COMPLEX  PKOPKR  N0CN8.        39 

80.  Compounds  ending  in  ful^  those  formed  of  ele- 
ments of  equal  importance,  and  some  foreign  com- 
pounds in  common  use,  take  the  plural  termination  at 
the  end  ;  as,  pailful*,  penny-a-liners,  jack-a-lantern«, 
habcas-cor])us^«,  ipse-dixitj. 

81.  Tlie  following  compounds  vary  both  elements : — 

Singxdar.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

Mun-cbild,  men-children.        I  Woman-singer,       women-singers. 

Man-servant,  men-servants.  Knight-templar,       knights-templars. 

Man-singer,  men-singers.  Knight-baronet,       knights-baronets. 

Woman-servant,     women-scr^'anta.     Knight-hospitaller,  knights-hospital- 
lers. 

82.  Plural  of  Complex  Proper  Koltjs. — When 
complex  proper  nouns  are  preceded  by  the,  and  denote 
a  whole  class  having  the  character  of  an  individual,  the 
last  name  takes  the  plural  termination  ;  as,  "  The  Sir 
Isaac  Newton*  of  the  present  century". 

83.  In  all  other  cases,  the  title  alone,  when  there  is 
one,  should  be  pluralized  :  as,  Govetmors  Morgan,  Hicks, 
and  Purdy ;  Mayors  White  and  Kenny  ;  the  Misses 
and  Masters  Davies  ;  the  Messrs.  Plum. 

84.  Parse  such  expressions  thus :  Oovemors  is  a  proper  noun,  in  the 
third  person,  plural  number.  Morgan^  Bicks,  and  Purdy,  are  proper 
nouns,  in  the  third,  singular.  3Iisses  {Davies)  is  a  complex  proper  noun, 
in  the  third,  plural.  Masters  Davies  is  a  complex  proper  noun,  in  the 
third,  plural.  Messrs.  Plwn  is  a  complex  proper  noun,  in  the  third, 
plural. 

85.  In  cases  like  the  last  two  examples  in  §  83,  usage  differs.  Some 
pluralize  the  name  and  not  the  title,  particularly  when  a  word  exproasing 
number  precedes,  or  when  the  title  is  Mrs.,  which  has  no  distinct  plural 
form ;  as,  the  three  Mr.  Plums,  the  Mrs.  Plums.  Others,  again,  pluralize 
both  title  and  name ;  as,  the  Messrs.  Plums.    This  is  decidedly  wrong. 

vantT  Manti^rr?  "Woman- terr  ant  1  Womanainger  7  Knight  templar  1  Knight- 
baronet  J  Kntghthotpitalter  7  82.  When  do  complex  proper  Jiounn  take  the  plural 
terminntion  at  the  end  t  83.  In  other  caites,  how  do  complex  proper  noun«  consist- 
ing partly  ot  a  title  form  their  plural  f  84.  How  are  such  exproMions  panned  t 
k6.  Wb«i  difltawiM  of  UMf*  la  mentlODed  In  furmlng  the  plural  of  complex  proper 


40        PLURAL  OF  COMPLEX  PBOPEB  NOUNS. 

It  seems  preferable  in  all  cases  to  pluralize  the  title  alone  : — 

1.  Because  uniformity  is  desirable,  and  there  are  some  cases  in  which 
no  other  form  will  answer ;  as,  Mayors  White  and  Kenny,  Misses  Sarah 
and  Augusta  Grey. 

2.  Because  then  we  show  the  exact  speUing  of  the  name,  which  might 
otherwise  be  mistaken. 

3.  Because  we  thus  sometimes  avoid  awkward  variations  of  the 
proper  name,  such  as  the  Miss  Perkinses^  the  Mr.  Youngses^  the  Master 
Bavieses. 

86.  The  title  Mrs.  (an  abbreviation  of  mistress^  pronounced  rmssis) 
is  aUke  in  both  numbers ;  as,  Mrs.  Hay,  the  two  Mrs.  Hay. 

EXERCISE. 

Form  the  plural: — Brother-in-law;  step-daughter;  holder- 
forth  ;  court-martial ;  court-marshal ;  account-book ;  backwoods- 
man ;  chimney-sweeper  ;  quartermaster-general ;  basketful ;  tin- 
der-box ;  goose-quill ;  camera-obscura  ;  tete-a-tete  ;  man-ser- 
vant ;  the  Julius  Ofesar  (pi.)  and  Peter  the  Great  (pi.)  of  modern 
times ;  General  Burgoyne  and  Gates ;  the  Earl  of  Northumber- 
land and  Devonshire ;  Lord  Hastings  and  Grey ;  Alderman  Brady 
and  Jones  ;  the  Miss  Packard ;  Master  George  and  Henry  Talbot ; 
the  Mrs.  Montague. 


LESSON  XYIII. 

PLURAL   OF   FOREIGN   NOUNS. 

87.  Foreign  Nouns. — Foreign  nouns  are  nouns  in- 
troduced into  English  from  other  languages  without 
change.  As  regards  their  plural,  they  maj  be  divided 
into  three  classes : — 

1.  Those  that  take  the  regular  English  plural;  as, 
asylum,  asylums, 

2.  Those  that  take  both  the  foreign  and  the  regular 
English  plm'al ;  as,  cherub,  chertthim  and  cherubs. 

noons  consieting  partly  of  a  title  ?    Which  is  approved  as  the  best  form  t    For 
what  three  reasons  f    86.  What  is  the  plural  of  Mrs.  7 

87.  What  are  Foreign  Nouns  t    As  regards  their  plural,  how  may  they  be  di* 


PLimAL   OF   FOREIGN    NOUNS. 


41 


3.  Scientific  and  rare  words,  which  have  the  foreign 
plural  only ;  as,  ellipsis,  ellipses. 

88.  Rules  for  tile  Plural  of  Foreign  Kouns. — In 
forming  foreign  plurals,  the  following  rules  apply  : — ^Tho 
termination 

A  becomes  je,  sometimes  ata  :  larva,  larvtc  /  miasma,  miasmato. 
Is  becomes  es,  sometimes  ides:  axw,  axes;  apsi*,  apsides. 
Us  becomes  i ;  magu«,  magt ; — but,  ge'nw,  gen'era. 
Um  aiid  ON  become  a:  datMm,  dato;  phenomenon,  phenomena. 
Ex  and  ix  become  ices;  vort^r,  vorti<^;  Le'l/j,  heVices. 
O  becomes  i ;  virtuoso,  virtuosi. 

89.  Table. — ^The  following  Table  contains  the  most 
important  nouns  that  retain  their  foreign  plural.  Tlio 
letter  E.  after  the  foreign  form  indicates  that  the  word 
has  also  the  regular  English  plural ;  as,  beau,  beaux  and 
heaus. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Alumnus, 

alumni. 

Calculus, 

calculi. 

Amanuensis, 

amanuenses. 

Ca'lyx, 

cal  yces,  R. 

Aualysis, 

analyses. 

Cherub, 

cherubim*,  R, 

Animalculum, 

animalcula. 

Chrysalis, 

chrysal'ides. 

Antithesis, 

antitheses. 

Cica'da, 

cica'dae. 

Apox, 

ap'ices,  R. 

Cicerone, 

ciceroni,  R. 

Aphelion, 

aphelia. 

Crisis, 

crises. 

Appendix, 

appen'diccs,  R. 

Criterion, 

criteria,  R. 

Aquarium, 

aquaria,  R. 

Datum, 

data. 

Arcanum, 

arcana. 

Desideratum, 

dcsidcratat 

Automaton, 

automata,  R. 

Diteresis, 

diKreses. 

Axis, 

axes. 

Effluvium, 

effluvia. 

Bonditto, 

banditd. 

Ellipsis, 

ellipses. 

Biuds, 

baaei. 

Encomium, 

encomia,  R. 

Beau, 

beaux,  R. 

Ephem'eris, 

ephemer'idea. 

*  The  doable  plaral*.  eherubitfu  t 

Old  teraphifMt  should  be  avoided. 

vtded  f  n.  Wbat  do  foreign  noan«  In  a  make  tn  the  plnral  t  Foroif^n  noana  in  i«t 
Voreign  noaim  in  •»  7  ForvHrn  nuuna  in  um  find  on  7  Foreign  nouna  in  es  and  is  7 
Vbroign  nouna  in  o 7  8B.  >Vliat  la  t}ie  plural  of  oprjr  7  Aquarium?  DtOMt  Cherubl 
\t  Madame  J  Mr.l  liadiusJ  Focus  J  CriUriml 


42 


PLURAL   OF   FOREIGN   NOUNS. 


Sinpdar. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Erratum, 

errata. 

Nucleus, 

nuclei,  R. 

Pocus, 

foci. 

Oasis, 

oases. 

Formula, 

formulae,  R. 

Parenthesis, 

parentheses. 

Fulcrum, 

fulcra,  R. 

Parhelion, 

parhelia. 

Fungus, 

fungi,  R. 

Perihelion, 

perihelia. 

Ge'nus, 

gen'era. 

Phasis, 

phases. 

Gymnasium, 

gymnasia,  R. 

Phenomenon, 

phenomena. 

He'lix, 

hel'ices. 

Radius, 

radii,  R. 

Herbarium, 

herbaria,  R. 

Rostrum, 

rostra. 

Hypothesis, 

hypotheses. 

Sarcophagus, 

sarcophagi,  R. 

Ignis  fatuus. 

ignes  fatui. 

Scholium, 

scholia,  R. 

Lamina, 

laminae. 

Seraph, 

seraphim,  R. 

Larva, 

larvae. 

Spectrum, 

spectra. 

Madame, 

mesdames. 

Speculum, 

specula. 

Magus, 

magi. 

Stamen, 

stamina,  R. 

Medium, 

media,  R. 

Stimulus, 

stimuli. 

Memorandum, 

memoranda,  R. 

Stratum, 

strata,  R. 

Menstruum, 

menstrua. 

Synopsis, 

synopses. 

Metamor'phosis 

?,  metamor'phosea 

Terminus, 

termini. 

Miasma, 

miasmata. 

Thesis, 

theses. 

Momentum, 

momenta,  R. 

Vertebra, 

vertebrae. 

Monsieur, 

messieurs. 

Vertex, 

vertices,  R. 

Mr., 

messrs. 

Virtuoso, 

virtuosi,  R. 

Nebula, 

nebiilae. 

Vortex, 

vortices,  R. 

EXEK 

CISE. 

Change  the  following  incorrect  plurals  to  the  proper  form  :^^ 
Vallies;  bambooes;  embargos;  buffalos;  grottoes;  soloes;  ener- 
gys ;  soliloquys  ;  sea-calfs  ;  loafs ;  flag-staves ;  the  Scipio's ;  the 
Brutus's;  the  Alleghanys;  talismen ;  Musselmen ;  dollars  are 
Btamped  with  heavy  dice ;  the  ancients  believed  in  good  and  bad 
geniuses  ;  ten  pennies  a  yard  ;  two  good  'pence  ;  we  must  buy  new 
«a^7 for  the  vessel ;  son-in-laws;  men-slayer;  going-forths ;  spoons- 
ful; knight-templars;  cannons;  bellowses;  specieses;  a  large 
haul  of  shads  and  herrings ;  five  weak  fishes ;  a  bagful  of  water- 
fowls ;  twelve  pairs  of  gloves ;  eight  scores ;  the  General  Knox 
and  Gates ;  the  Miss  Maria  and  Susan  Whites  ;  the  three  Masters 
Higginses;  Messrs.  Aliens ;  stimuluses;  erratums;  geni;  phenom- 
enas ;  crisises ;  ellipsides ;  myrmida  ipns) ;  octaga. 


NOCN8    NOT    USED   IN    BOTH    NUMBERS. 


43 


LESSON  XIX. 

NOUNS  NOT  USED  IN  BOTU  NUMBEEB. 

90.  Some  nouns  are  found  in  but  one  number. 

91.  SiNGULAB  Nouns. — ^The  following  nouns  have  no 
phiral : — 

1.  Many  abstract  nouns,  the  names  of  virtues,  vicesj 
and  properties ;  as,  courage^  idleness^  cohesion,  roundr 
iiess. 

2.  The  names  of  many  arts,  sciences,  and  diseases ; 
as,  architecture,  rhetoric,  hronchiiis. 

3.  The  names  of  many  articles  sold  by  weight  or 
measure ;  as,  flax,  lard,  lead,  cider,  milk,  pitch,  rye. 
Some  of  these,  however,  take  a  regular  plural  when 
different  kinds  are  spoken  of;  as,  the  teas  of  China,  the 
silks  of  India. 

92.  The  word  news  is  singular.  Apocri/pha^  hysterics^  measlen,  and 
the  names  of  sciences  ending  in  ic9  (as,  mechanics^  hydraulics,  politics^ 
Ac),  having  a  plural  form,  are  by  some  used  as  plural ;  others,  with  better 
reason,  make  them  singular,  as  they  convey  singular  idcaa 

93.  Plural  Nouns. — ^The  following  nouns  have  no 
singular  now  in  good  use  : — 


Aborigines 

Calends 

Greens 

Minutiae 

Suds 

Annals 

Cattle 

Grounds  (dregs)  Morals 

Teens 

Antipodes 

Clothes 

Hatches 

Nones 

Thanks 

Archives 

Dregs 

Headquarters 

Nuptials 

Tidings 

Ashes 

Eaves 

Ides 

Paraphernali 

a  Trowsers 

Assets 

Eml)er8 

Lees 

Ravellings 

Vespers 

Belles-lettres 

Entrails 

Literati 

Regalia 

Victuals 

Billiards 

Filings 

Mammalia 

Riches 

Vitals 

Bitters 

Fireworka 

Manners 

Shambles 

Wages 

BreecbM 

Goods 

Matins 

Spectacles 

Withers 

W.  What  i«   Hd<l  mboat  ■ome  nouns,  u  retards  number  t     91.  Name  three 
I  of  noons  not  n»ed  in  the  plnnil.     When  do  some  artirlon  sold  by  wef|;ht  or 
ira  take  a  ptuml  t    92.  In  what  number  is  neva  7    What  in  the  numiwr  of 
UMMtet,  and  namea  of  acienrea  in  ieaJ    98.  Mention  aomo  of  the  moet 
QommoD  nouns  that  bav«  ao  singular.    What  names  may  be  added  to  tbla  llat  t 


^  GENDEB   OF   NOUNS. 

To  these  may  be  added  colors  (banners),  drawers  (an  article  of  cloth- 
ing), letters  (literature),  the  names  of  instruments  composed  of  two  parts 
(as,  compasses,  scissors,  tongs,  tweezers,  &c.),  and  the  scientific  names  of 
many  orders  and  families  of  beasts,  birds,  fish,  and  insects, 

EXEECISE. 

Mention  the  nouns,  their  class,  person,  and  nnniber.  [Thus  :— * 
Banditti  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  plural  mmiber.] 
The  banditti,  both  horse  and  foot,  entered  the  town,  carried  off 
twenty  head  of  cattle,  and  put  to  death  the  Count  of  Orsini's 
brothers. — You  Laplanders  have  large  herds  of  reindeer. — Codfish 
and  mackerel  are  caught  in  great  numbers  near  ^Newfoundland. — 
Great  crises  produce  great  geniuses,  as  the  annals  of  many  people 
will  show. — Jack-o'-lanterns,  or  as  they  are  otherwise  called  ignes 
fatui,  consist  of  luminous  gases  that  rise  in  marshy  places. — 
Elizabeth,  Anne,  and  Victoria,  rank  among  the  best  of  the  Eng- 
lish sovereigns. — Generals  Greene  and  Sullivan  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Brandywine. — The  Marquis  of  La  Fayette  had  five  corps 
of  infantry  and  two  small  cannon. 


LESSON  XX. 

THE    GENDER    OF    NOUNS. 

Boy  Girl 

Lion  Lioness 

Man-singer  "Woman-singer 

94.  Compare  the  words  in  the  first  column  with  those  opposite  to  them  in 
the  second.  The  former  denote  males  ;  the  latter,  females.  Some  nouns^ 
therefore,  indicate  the  sex  of  the  objects  they  represent. 

95.  Gender  is  that  property  which  distinguishes  ob- 
jects as  male  or  female. 

96.  There  are  two  genders,  the  Masculine  and  the 
Feminine. 

©4.  Look  at  the  words  in  the  two  columns.  WTiat  do  those  in  the  first  column 
denote  f  Those  in  the  second  f  What,  therefore,  do  eome  nouns  indicate  ?  95.  What 
58  Gender  t    96.  Name  the  genders.    What  does  the  Masculine  Gender  denote* 


NOUNS   DEfiTITUTK  OF   OENDEK.  45 

Tlie  XaBColine  Gender  denotes  males ;  the  Feminine, 
females. 

97.  Nouns  Destitute  of  Gender. — ^Many  nouns  aro 
destitute  of  gender.  Things  without  life  are  neither 
male  nor  female  ;  heuce  the  nouns  that  represent  tliem 
have  no  gender. 

98.  Things  without  life,  however,  are  sometimes  personified, — that  is, 
spoken  to  or  of  as  persons.  Thus  we  saj,  *^  Murder  stalks  through  the 
land."  "  Here  Sorrow  sits,  veiUng  her  eyes."  Fierce,  vast,  and  sublime 
objects  (as  Anger,  Time,  Revenge)  are  personified  as  males,  and  their 
names  become  masculine.  Gentle,  delicate,  and  beautiful  objects  (as 
Hope,  Evening,  Plenty)  are  personified  as  females,  and  their  names  be- 
come feminine. 

99.  Common  Gender. — ^The  gender  of  the  words  pre- 
sented at  tlie  commencement  of  this  lesson  is  perceived 
at  once.  It  is  not  so,  however,  with  every  noun  that 
has  gender.  Thus  neighhar  may  denote  either  inale  or 
female. 

When  there  is  no  way  of  determining  which  sex  is 
meant,  the  noun  is  either  masculine  or  feminine,  which 
we  express  briefly  by  saying  that  it  is  of  the  com'nwn 
gender.  A  noun  in  the  plural  that  represents  both 
sexes,  is  also  of  the  common  gender. 

100.  The  gender  of  a  noun  which  of  itself  may  represent  either  sex 
may  be  determined  by  some  word  referring  to  it.  //<•,  Ai«,  or  /itw,  shows 
it  to  be  masculine ;  the  or  A«r,  feminine.  Obsen'e  the  gender  of  the 
noun  neighbor  in  the  following  examples : — 

Common    Oevder. — Love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 

"  "  Love  your  neighbors  as  yourselves. 

Ma»eulin»    Oend. — My  neighbor  has  gone  to  his  father's. 
Feminine  Oender. — My  neighbor  has  gone  to  her  father's. 

What,  the  Feminino  t  97.  What  nouns  are  generally  deatltate  of  gender  t  98.  TIow 
•re  thing*  withoat  life  aometinieii  epoken  to  or  spoken  off  Give  ezaroplcs.  What 
kind  of  obJcoUi  are  pcreonifled  u  m«le«  t  What  gender  do  their  names  become  t 
What  objocta  are  peraonlflod  as  fvmalei)  f  Wliat  (reader  do  their  names  become  I 
99.  When  is  a  noun  said  to  h9  of  the  common  /fender  1  What  (ponder  is  a  noun  in 
the  ]f\VLXtX  that  representa  both  sexes  f    100.  How  may  the  geudcr  of  a  noun  aom^ 


4:6  GENDER   OF   COLLECTIYE   NOUNS. 

101.  Masculine  nouns,  and  some  feminines  also,  may  be  used  without 
reference  to  sex.  They  then  represent  an  entire  class  consisting  of  both 
sexes.  Thus  : — "  The  tiger  lies  in  wait  for  his  prey."  "  The  world  is  full  of 
heroes.^'*  "  Every  passenger  must  hold  his  own  ticket."  "  Geese  are  long- 
lived  birds." — Here  tiger^  heroes,  and  passenger,  are  masculine,  and  geest 
is  feminine  ;  yet  we  mean  the  tigress  as  well  as  the  tiger,  heroines  as  well 
as  heroes,  every  female  as  well  as  every  male  passenger,  and  ganders  as 
mtW  as  geese. 

102.  Gender  of  Collective  Nouns. — A  collective 
noun  denotes  a  body  of  living  individuals.  These  indi- 
viduals may  be  spoken  of  as  a  whole  or  separately.  If 
we  say,  "  The  audience  was  large,"  we  mean  the  audi- 
ence taken  as  a  whole.  If  we  say,  "  The  audience  were 
delighted,"  we  mean  the  audience  taken  as  individuals^ 
the  persons  in  the  audience. 

When  a  collective  noun  denotes  a  body  of  individu- 
als taken  as  a  whole,  it  has  no  gender.  When  it  de- 
notes individuals  taken  separately,  it  is  masculine  if 
these  individuals  are  males,  feminine  if  they  are  females, 
and  common  if  both.     Thus  : — 

No  gender. — The  audience  was  delighted. 

Masculine. — A  committee  of  gentlemen  are  calling  for  subscriptions. 
Feminine. — A  committee  of  ladies  are  calling  for  subscriptions. 
Common. — The  audience  were  delighted. 

EXERCISE. 
Mention  the  nouns,  their  class,  person,  number,  and  gender 
when  they  have  it.  [Thus  : — Sir  Isaac  Newton  is  a  complex  proper 
noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender. 
Philosophers  is  a  ccnnmon  noun,  in  the  third  person,  plural  number, 
common  gender.  Age  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular number.] 

timcB  "be  determined  ?  What  words  show  it  to  be  maeculine  ?  What,  feminine? 
Illustrate  this  with  the  noun  neighbor.  101.  How  may  masculine  nouns  and  some 
feminines  be  used  ?  What  do  they  then  represent  ?  Give  examples.  102.  What 
does  a  collective  noun  denote  ?  How  may  these  individuals  be  spoken  of?  Give 
examples.  What  is  the  Render  of  a  collective  noun  when  the  individuals  it  denotoa 
are  taken  as  a  whole  I    What,  when  they  are  taken  separately  ?    Give  examplea. 


COERKLATIVE   NOUNS. 


47 


Sir  Isaac  Newton  waa  among  the  greatest  pliilosophers  of  his 
age. — The  philosopher  Diogenes  lived  in  a  tuh. — The  lion  is  the 
king  of  beasts. — Pleasure,  dressed  in  her  gay  robes,  whispers 
temptingly  to  young  men  and  maidens. — Every  congregation  likes 
its  own  minister  best. — The  sewing-society  appointed  a  committee 
to  collect  contributions  from  the  congregation. — At  Aleppo  is  a 
cat-asylum,  founded  by  a  Turk,  where  sick  cats  are  provided  for. — 
Boys  and  girls  are  our  future  men  and  women. 


LESSON   XXI. 


HASOULINB    AND    FEMININE    CORRELATIVES. 

103.  Correlative  Nouns. — Some  masculine  nouns 
have  corresponding  feminines :  as,  boy,  girl ;  lion, 
lioness  ;  man-singer,  woman-singer, 

A  masculine  noun  and  its  corresponding  feminine  are 
called  Correlative  Nouns. 

104.  Classes. — Correlative  nouns  are  divided  into 
three  classes : — 

I.  Those  in  which  the  feminine  is  formed  by  append- 
ing the  suffix  ess^  ine,  ina^  ix,  or  a  to  the  masculine, 
with  or  without  change ;  as. 


Mawuline. 

Feminitie. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Abbot, 

abbess. 

Count, 

countess. 

Actor, 

actress. 

Czar, 

czarina. 

Administrator, 

administratrix. 

Dauphin, 

dauphineas. 

Ambassador, 

ambassadress. 

Deacon, 

deaconess. 

Arbiter, 

arbitress. 

Director, 

directress. 

Author, 

authoress. 

Doctor, 

doct-oress,  reati 

Baron, 

baroness. 

Don, 

donna. 

Benefactor, 

benefactress. 

Duke, 

duchess. 

Conductor, 

conductreai. 

Editor, 

editress. 

lOS.  Whftt  are  Correlative  Nonnef     Give  examples.    104.  Into  how  nMay 
•re  oorrelative  nouna  divided t    What  ia  the  flrat  el«Mt    Beloet  ttrnn  the 


48 


MASCULINE   AND  FEMININE  COKEELATIVES. 


Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Jfasculine. 

JFeminine. 

Emperor, 

empress. 

Palsgrave, 

palsgravine. 

Enchanter, 

enchantress. 

Patron, 

patroness. 

Executor, 

executrix. 

Peer, 

peeress. 

God, 

goddess. 

Poet, 

poetess. 

Governor, 

governess. 

Priest, 

priestess. 

Heir, 

heiress. 

Prince, 

princess. 

Hero, 

heroine. 

Prior, 

prioress. 

Host, 

hostess. 

Prophet, 

prophetess. 

Hunter, 

huntress. 

Proprietor, 

proprietress. 

Idolater, 

idolatress. 

Protector, 

protectress. 

Infante  {title), 

infanta. 

Shepherd, 

shepherdess. 

Instructor, 

instructress. 

Songster, 

songstress. 

Jew, 

Jewess. 

Sorcerer, 

sorceress. 

Landgrave, 

landgravine. 

Sultan, 

sul'taness,  sulta' 

Lion, 

lioness. 

Tailor, 

tailoress. 

Margrave, 

margravine. 

Testator, 

testatrix. 

Marquis, 

marchioness. 

Tiger, 

tigress. 

Mediator, 

mediatr-ix,  ess. 

Traitor, 

traitress. 

Murderer, 

murderess. 

Viscount, 

viscountess. 

Negro, 

negress. 

Votary, 

votaress. 

Ogre, 

ogress. 

Waiter, 

waitress. 

Some  proper  nouns  are  made  feminine  bj  a  change 
of  termination,  or  the  addition  of  a  letter  or  letters  ;  as, 

Augustus,   Augusta.        1  Francis,      Frances.         j  Louis,        Louis-e,  a, 
George,       Georgiana.    |  Jesse,         Jessie.  1  Paul,  Pauline. 

II.  Those  in  which  the  genders  are  distinguished  by 
the  use  of  different  words ;  as, 

Mas.  Fern. 

Bachelor,  maid. 

Beau,  belle. 

Boy,  girl. 

Bridegroom,  K   . , 
^       °         '  h  bride. 
Groom,  ) 


Mas. 

Fern. 

Mas. 

Fern. 

Brother, 

sister. 

Father, 

mother. 

Buck, 

doe. 

Friar,  monk. 

nun. 

Bull, 

cow. 

Gander, 

goose. 

Drake, 

duck. 

Gentleman, 

lady. 

Earl, 

countess. 

Hart, 

roe. 

list  a  feminine  correlative  formed  with  each  of  the  sufflxes  mentioned.  How  are 
Bome  proper  nouns  made  feminine  ?  What  is  the  feminine  of  Augustus?  George  7 
Francis?  Jesse?  Louis?  Paul?  What  is  the  second  class  of  correlative  nouns? 
Give  ezampleB.    Wliat  is  the  third  class  of  correlative  nouns  ?    Give  examples. 


OORRELATIVK   NOUNS. 


49 


Mom. 

Fern. 

Mas. 

Fern. 

Ma$. 

Fern. 

Horse, 

mare. 

Master, 

mistress. 

Sire, 

dam. 

Husband, 

wife. 

Master, 

miss. 

Son, 

daughter. 

King, 

queen. 

Mr. 

Mrs. 

Stag, 

hind. 

Lad, 

lass. 

Nephew, 

niece. 

Steer, 

heifer. 

Lord, 

lady. 

Papa, 

mamma. 

Uncle, 

aunt. 

Mule, 

female. 

Ram,  buck 

ewe. 

Widower, 

widow. 

Man, 

woman. 

Sir, 

nmHam, 

Wizard, 

witch. 

III.  Tliose  in  which  words  indicating  the  sex  are 
f  reiixed  to  nouns  of  common  gender  ;  as, 

Masculine.  Feminine.  Masculine. 


Man-singer,  woman-singer. 

Man-servant,         maid-servant 
Male-descendant,  female-descendant. 


Cock -sparrow. 

He-goat, 

Buck-rabbit, 


Feminine. 
hen-sparrow, 
she-goat, 
doe- rabbit. 


105.  Compound  nouns,  in  their  gender  and  the  for- 
mation of  their  feminines,  follow  their  leading  ele- 
ments ;  as, 


Masculine. 
Brother-in-lav 
Step-father, 
Pcacoek, 


Feminine. 
sister-in-law. 
stop-mother, 
peahen. 


Masculine. 
Landlord, 
Schoolmaster, 
Frenchman. 


Feminine. 
landlady, 
schoolmistrcas. 
Frenchwoman. 


EXERCISE. 

Oive  the  feminine : — Czar;  director;  archduke;  earl;  em- 
peror; enchanter;  hunter;  infante  (prince  royal  of  Spain)  ;  land- 
grave ;  sultan ;  viscount ;  Julius ;  Henry  ;  Joseph  ;  boy  ;  school- 
boy ;  grandfather ;  steer  ;  lord ;  Englishman  ;  master ;  master 
(a  title) ;  stag ;  widower ;  son-in-law  ;  male-descendants ;  media- 
tor ;  tailor ;  hart ;  step-son. 

Give  the  ma^uUne : — Oo-heiress  ;  negress ;  bride ;  wife  ;  roe ; 
grandniece ;  granddaughter ;  mother-in-law  ;  empress ;  school- 
mistress; Irishwoman;  Moabitess ;  witch  ;  songstress;  executrix; 
female-servant ;  serving-woman ;  lass ;  landlady  ;  Charlotte ;  Har- 
riet ;  Cornelia. 

Mention  »ix  masculine  nouns;  six  feminine  nouns  in  ess;  six 
nouns  of  oommon  gender  ;  six  nouns  that  have  no  gender. 


105.  What  U  the  ml*  for  tho  gender  of  oompoond  notut*  and  the  formattoo  of 
their  feminines  f    Qive  ezamplee. 


50  GRAMMATICAL   AND   LOGICAL   SUBJECTS. 

LESSON  XXIL 

THE    CASE    OF    NOUNS. 

We  must  now  consider  the  relations  in  which  nouns 
Btand  to  other  words. 

106.  In  every  sentence  there  is  one  leading  word, 
denoting  that  about  which  something  is  said.  This  is 
called  the  Grammatical  Subject  of  the  sentence.  — "  Morse 
invented  the  telegraph."  Here  Morse  is  the  leading 
word,  denoting  that  about  which  something  is  said,  and 
it  is  therefore  the  grammatical  subject. 

107.  Words  may  be  joined  to  the  grammatical  sub- 
ject, to  limit  or  explain  its  meaning,  or  introduce  some 
additional  fact.     These  are  called  Modifiers. 

108.  The  grammatical  subject  and  its  modifiers  form 
what  is  called  the  Logical  Subject. — "  Morse,  a  native 
of  Massachusetts,  invented  the  telegraph."  Morse^  a 
native  of  Massachusetts^  is  the  logical  subject. 

109.  The  words  that  remain  in  a  sentence  after  the 
logical  subject  is  removed,  form  what  is  called  the 
Predicate. — Invented  the  telegraph  is  the  predicate  of 
both  the  sentences  given  above  as  examples. 

"  The  telegraph  was  invented  by  Morse."  Here  we  express  the  same 
idea,  but  in  a  different  form.  Telegraph  is  now  the  grammatical  subject ; 
the  telegraph  is  the  logical  subject ;  was  invented  by  Morse  is  the  predicate. 

110.  The  predicate  of  every  sentence  contains  at 
least   one  word   that  affirms.     This  is  called  a  Verb. 


106.  What  18  meant  by  the  Graramatical  Subject  of  a  sentence  ?  Wliat  is  the 
grammatical  subject  of  the  sentence  Morsp  invented  the  telegraph  7  107.  What  may 
be  joined  to  the  grammatical  subject?  What  are  such  words  called?  108.  What 
Is  the  Logical  Subject?  Point  out  the  grammatical  and  the  logical  eubjoct  in  the 
sentence  Morse,  a  native  of  Massachusetts,  invented  the  telegraph.  109.  What  is  the 
Predicate  ?  Select  the  predicate  of  the  sentence  just  given.  110.  What  docs  the 
predicate  of  every  sentence  contain  ?    What  is  this  word  called  ?    What  is  the 


CASES   OF  NOUNS.  i)i 

Til  at  respecting  which  the  verb  affirms  is  called  its 
Subject  The  grammatical  subject  of  a  sentence  is 
always  the  sulked  of  the  leading  verb  in  the  predicate. 

In  the  example  just  given,  the  grammatical  Bubject  of  the  sentence, 
telegraph,  id  the  subject  of  the  leading  verb  in  the  predicate,  vxu  invented. 

111.  Observe  the  following  sentences: — 

Morse  invented  the  telegraph. 

The  telegraph  was  invented  by  Morse. 

Morse's  invention  of  the  telegraph  has  made  hid  name  immortal. 
In  these  three  sentences,  the  proper  noun  stands  in  different  relations 
to  the  other  words.  In  the  first  sentence,  the  noun  Morse  is  the  gi-am- 
matical  subject ;  in  the  second,  it  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  by ;  in 
the  thinl,  its  form  is  changed  to  Morse's,  and  it  modifies  the  following  noun 
invention,  telling  whose  the  invention  was.  Hence  we  distinguisl^  three 
different  relations  that  a  noun  may  sustun  in  a  sentence. 

112.  Case  is  that  property  which  distinguishes  the  re- 
lations of  nouns  and  pronouns  to  other  words  in  a  sen- 
tence. 

Tlicre  are  three  cases,  known  as  the  Nominative,  the 
Possessive,  and  the  Objective. 

113.  Tlie  Kominative  Case  usually  denotes  the  relation 
which  a  6ul)ject  bears  to  its  verb ;  as,  ^'' David  suc- 
ceeded Saul." 

The  nominative  also  denotes  the  relation  of  a  noun  In  the  predicate 
after  a  verb,  referring  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of  the 
verb;  as,  ^'Moluunmed  was  an  Arabian,"^  "Charlemagne  was  crowned 
emjieror^ 

A  noun  used  independently,  in  an  exclamation,  address,  &c.,  is  also  io 
Uie  nominative ;  as  "  Heavens  I  what  a  sight  / "  "  Plato,  thou  reasone^t 
well."     **  Teas  and  groceries  for  sale."     "  The  sun  having  set,  I  returned." 

■abject  of  a  vcrht  What  will  the  grrammatical  aubjoct  of  a  sentence  always  bo 
found  to  be  t  111.  Give  the  three  aentencos  to  which  attention  is  called.  Show  the 
dlfTcrent  relations  in  which  the  proper  noun  atanda  in  thef*e  sentences.  112.  What 
la  Case  t  Name  the  cases.  113.  What  does  the  Nominative  Case  usually  denote  t 
What  other  relation  does  the  nominative  denote  f  In  what  case  is  a  noun  when 
used  independently  f  Wliat  la  the  case  of  tun,  and  why,  in  the  sentence  T%e  tun 
katimg  ae/,  /  returned  7    If  we  say,  At  the  tun  had  tt,  I  rttumed,  what  case  ia  tUMf 


52  THE   POSSESSIVE. — THE   OBJECTIVE. 

In  this  last  sentence,  the  action  is  assumed,  in  stead  of  being  affirmed,  and 
mn  is  in  the  nominative  independent.  If  we  say,  "  As  the  sun  had  set,  I 
returned,"  the  action  is  affirmed,  and  sun  is  in  the  nominative  case  because 
it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  Jiad  set. 

114.  The  Possessive  Case  denotes  the  relation  of  pos- 
session, origin,  or  fitness,  which  a  modifying  noun  ou 
pronoun  bears  to  the  noun  that  it  modifies  :  as,  DavicTs 
father ;  an  eaglets  flight ;  childreri's  shoes. 

115.  The  Objective  Case  usualfy  denotes  the  object  of 
a  verb  or  preposition. 

The  object  of  a  verb  stands  in  the  predicate,  and 
represents  that  on  which  the  action  expressed  by  the 
verb  is  exerted  ;  as,  "  Bees  make  wax^  ''  David  suc- 
ceeded SauV 

116.  The  prepositions  most  frequently  used  are  at,  about,  after,  hef&re, 
by,  for,  from,  in,  into,  of,  over,  to,  with,  without.  A  preposition  always  has 
€si  object,  which  generally  follows  it.  Observe  the  objects  in  the  following 
sentence,  and  select  those  which  are  the  objects  of  prepositions :  "Do  thy 
duty  with  dihgence  and  without  fear,  from  love  of  right  and  in  the  hope  of 
a  reward  hereafter." 

EXEECISE. 

Point  out  the  grammatical  svJjject  of  each  sentence^  its  modifiers 
when  it  has  ajiy,  the  logical  subject,  and  the  predicate.  Select  the 
nouns  ;  state  their  class  and  cnse. — Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific 
Ocean. — Living  toads  are  sometimes  found  in  the  middle  of  huge 
rocks. — Victoria  having  succeeded  to  the  throne,  the  government 
was  administered  with  vigor  and  wisdom. — Deer's  horns  adorned 
my  friend's  apartment. — The  Indians  of  the  "West  hang  bears* 
claws  about  their  necks. — Robert  Fulton  was  the  inventor  of 
steamboats. — My  friends — alas!  I  have  no  friends. — O  Health, 
Inestimable  are  thy  blessings. — The  purest  peai'l  may  be  found  in 
the  roughest  oyster. 

and  why  ?  114.  What  relation  doea  the  Posseseive  Case  denote  ?  115.  What  does 
the  Objective  Case  usually  denote  ?  Where  doea  the  object  of  a  verb  stand  ?  What 
docs  it  represent  ?  116,  Name  the  prepositlonB  moflt  frequently  used.  What  dooB 
p  preposition  always  havo^ 


FORMATION   OF  THE   CAS?:S   OF   NOCNfl. 


63 


LESSON  XXIII. 

THK   DECLENSION   OF   NOUNS. 

117.  Declension  of  Kouns. — By  the  Declension  of 
a  noun  is  meant  the  process  of  carrying  it  through  its 
several  cases.    Tlie  following  will  serve  as  examples : — 

Sing.    Plu.  Sing.  Flu.  Sing.  Flu. 


ITom. 

Dog, 

dogs, 

Sky, 

skies. 

Hero, 

beroea. 

FOMS. 

dog's, 

dogs', 

sky's. 

skies', 

hero's, 

heroes*. 

Obj. 

dog; 

dogs. 

sky; 

skies. 

hero; 

heroes. 

N<m. 

Ox, 

oxen. 

Woman, 

women. 

Julius, 

._ 

FOM. 

ox's, 

oxen's, 

woman's, 

women's. 

Julius's, 

Obj. 

ox; 

oxen- 

woman ; 

women. 

Julius. 

118.  Rules  for  the  Formation  of  the  Cases. — From 
tlie  above  examples  may  be  derived  the  following  rules, 
which  apply  to  compound  as  well  as  primitive  nouns  :-r 

1.  Tlie  form  of  the  noun  is  the  same  in  the  objective 
case  as  in  the  nominative. 

2.  The  possessive  singular  is  formed  by  appending 
an  apostrophe  and  s  Cs)  to  the  nominative  singular. 

3.  The  possessive  plural  is  formed  by  appending  's 
to  the  nominative  plural  unless  it  already  ends  in  8,  in 
wliich  case  the  apostrophe  C)  alone  is  added. 

119.  When  a  word  ends  with  the  sound  of  «  or  z,  particularly  if  the 
next  word  commences  with  an  $  sound,  some  form  the  possessive  with  an 
apostrophe  alone ;  as,  for  conscience*  sake ;  Feleus'  son ;  science*  self.  It 
is  best,  however,  to  avoid  both  this  irregular  form  and  the  repetition  of  the 
«  sound,  by  substituting  of  with  the  objective  or  some  equivalent  oonstruo 
tion.  Thus : — for  the  sake  of  conscience ;  the  son  of  FeUu» ;  $cienc 
kertdf. 

117.  Wh«l  i«  meant  by  the  Declension  of  •  noun  !  Decline  dog ;  sky ;  hero ;  ox; 
iroman  ;  Juiiu*.  118.  In  what  two  cmm  U  the  form  of  the  noun  the  f«amo  t  la  this 
true  in  both  numbem  t  How  dowe  form  tbepoaacsaiveaiiiKular  t  Tlio  po«aefl«iy« 
plural  t  119.  iluw  do  aomo  form  the  poeaewilve  of  word*  ending  with  the  aoand 
of  «  or  a  ;    What  la  aaid  of  thla  Irr^ular  form  f 


54  PKONOUNS   AND   THEIR   CLASSES. 


EXEECISE. 

Decline  green-house ;  beau  ;  cherub ;  child ;  dormouse ;  to- 
mato; Louis;  nephew. 

Spell  first  the  possessive  singular^  then  the  possessive  plural,  of 
axe;  lock;  huntsman;  talisman;  knight-templar;  tigress;  ph©» 
nomenon;  distaff;  assembly;  rabbi;  valley;  cuckoo;  ashes. 

Parse  the  nouns.  [Thus : — l^ews  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  third 
person,  singular  number,  nominative  case.  Cornwallis''s  is  a  proper 
noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender, 
possessive  case.  Surrender  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  third  person, 
singular  number,  objective  case.]  The  news  of  Cornwallis's  sur- 
render was  received  by  all  true  Americans  with  delight. — Umbrel- 
las were  introduced  into  England  from  China,  about  a  hundred 
years  ago. — Slanderers  are  Satan's  bellows,  with  which  he  blows 
up  strife. — The  ostrich  is  hunted  for  its  feathers,  which  form 
beautiful  ornaments  for  ladies'  hats  and  head-dresses. — Obey  thy 
father  and  mother ;  honor  the  authors  of  thy  being. — Dogs'  ears  are 
very  different  things  from  dog's-ears. 


LESSON  XXIY. 

THE   PRONOUN.  — PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

120.  The  Pronoun. — ^Tlie  second  part  of  speech  is 
the  Pronoun. 

121.  "Sarah  asked  William  to  lend  Sarah  "William's  book."— This  sen- 
tence is  very  awkward.  To  avoid  repeating  the  nouns  Sarah  and  William, 
we  make  use  of  substitutes  called  Pronoims : — "Sarah  asked  William  to 
lend  her  his  book." 

122.  A  Pronoim  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun  or 
an  expression  equivalent  to  a  noun. 

123.  Classes. — ^There  are  four  classes  of  pronouns; 
Personal,  Eelative,  Interrogative,  and  Adjective. 

120.  What  is  the  second  part  of  speech  f  121,  Show  how  snbstltates  are  used, 
to  avoid  repeating  nouns.  122.  What  is  a  Pronoun?  123.  How  many  classes  of 
prouounB  are  there  t    Name  them.    What  properties  do  all  of  these  have  t    Wh*t 


PKKSONAL   PRONOUNS. 


55 


All  of  these  have  person,  number,  and  case.  Such  as  represent  things 
with  life  have  gender  also,  though  in  many  cases  it  is  undetermined.  In 
parsing,  give  the  gender  of  the  personals  only. 

124.  Personal  Pronouns. — A  Personal  Pronoun  is 
one  that  simply  represents  a  noun  and  determines  its 
person,  without  introducing  any  other  idea  respect- 
ing it. 

125.  The  personal  pronouns  are  distinguished  as 
Simple  and  Compound. 

12G.  Simple  Personal  Pronouns, — The  simple  per- 
sonal pronouns  are, 
I,  first  person,  masculine  gender  if  a  male  is  denoted, 

feminine  if  a  female. 
Thou,  second  person,  masculine  gender  if  a  male  is  de- 
noted, feminine  if  a  female. 
He,  third  person,  masculine  gender. 
She,  third  person,  feminine  gender.  '' 

It,  third  person,  destitute  of  gender. 

127.  The  simple  personals  are  thus  declined  : — 


Xom, 
Pom, 
ObJ. 


First  persok. 
Singular.         Plural. 
I,  we, 

my,  mine,      our,  ours, 


Second  person. 


Sing. 


Kom. 

He, 

Pom. 

his, 

Obj. 

him 

Plu. 

they, 
j  their, 
( theirs, 

them. 


Singular. 
Thou, 
thy,  thine, 
thee; 
TniRn  person. 
Sing.  Plu. 

She,  they, 

(  her,  their, 

(  hers,  theirs, 

her ;  them. 


Sing. 
It. 

its, 
it; 


Plural. 
you,  ye, 
your,  yours, 
you,  ye. 

Plu. 

they, 
(  their, 
(  theirs, 

them. 


128.  Compound  Personal  Prmwuns, — ^The  compound 
personals  are  formed  of  the  possessive  or  objective  case 


prooooiM  \Mn  g«Dder  also  t  134.  What  ia  a  Prraonn]  Pronoun  t  12&  How  are  the 
peraoDal  proootUM  dl«ting:ui«hed  t  120.  Mention  the  Blmplo  pereonal  pronouns,  and 
the  peraon  and  gender  of  each.    127.  Decline  the  aimple  peraooala.    128.  Of  what 


56  THE   COMPOUND   PERSONALS. 

of  the  simple  personals  and  the  word  self.  They  are 
not  found  in  the  possessive  case,  and  are  alike  in  the 
nominative  and  the  objective.  The  compound  per- 
sonals are, 

Myself,  plu.  ourselves,  ourself,  first  person,  masculine 
if  a  male  is  denoted,  feminine  if  a  female. 

Thyself,  plu.  yourselves,  yourself,  second  person,  mas- 
culine if  a  male  is  denoted,  feminine  if  a  female. 

Himself,  plu.  themselves,  third  person,  mas.  gender. 

Herself,  plu.  themselves,  third  person,  fem.  gender. 

Itself,  plu.  themselves,  third  person,  no  gender. 

129.  Forms  of  the  Possessive. — Most  of  the  simple  personal  pronouns 
have  two  forms  m  the  possessive  case.  The  shorter  form  is  used  when 
the  modified  noun  follows ;  the  longer,  when  it  is  understood.  We  say, 
"It  is  m^hat;"  but,  "This  hat  is  mne."  "Here  are  the  hats;  mine 
[that  is,  my  hat]  is  black."  "  It  is  thine  [thy  part]  to  command,  mine 
[my  part]  to  obey," 

130.  The  possessive  case  of  the  simple  personals,  as  well  as  of  nouns, 
is  frequently  used  with  the  preposition  of,  to  denote  possession  simply. 
Thus :  "  This  heart  of  mine  will  break."  "  Sing  to  the  Lord,  all  ye  ssints 
of  His^  The  meaning  here  is  not  this  heart  of  my  hearts,  as  some  ex- 
plain such  expressions,  for  I  have  but  one  heart ;  nor  all  ye  saints  of  His 
saints,  for  all  denotes  the  whole  and  not  a  part.  It  is  rather  the  noun 
"possessing,  owning,  that  is  understood  as  the  object  of  the  preposition  of — 
of  m.y.  His,  possessing. 

131.  Mine  and  thine  were  formerly  preferred  to  wyand  thy,  before 
words  commencing  with  a  vowel  sound  ;  as,  mine  aim,  thine  honor.  They 
are  still  sometimes  so  used  in  poetry;  thus  Byron,  "  thine  azure  brow." 

132.  Plural  fw  Singular. — The  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  the 
second  person  are  often  used  in  the  plural  though  but  one  person  is  denoted, 
A  king  would  say,  "  We  publish  this  our  decree,"  in  stead  of  "/publish 
this  my  decree," 

are  the  compound  personals  formed  ?  In  what  case  are  they  not  found  ?  What 
oaBes  are  alike?  Mention  the  compound  iiersonals,  and  their  person  and  gender. 
Decline  each.  129.  How  many  forms  have  most  of  the  simple  personals  in  the 
possessive  case  ?  What  distinction  is  observed  in  their  use !  130.  Wliat  prepo^ 
eition  is  frequently  used  with  the  possessive  case  of  the  simple  personals  ?  To 
denote  what  ?  Give  examples.  131.  Before  what  words  were  mine  and  thine  for- 
merly preferred  f    Where  are  they  still  sometimes  bo  used  f    132.  When  is  ouredf 


&EMASK8  ON  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.  57 

So  an  editor  writea,  "  We  think  ourstlf  safe  in  predicting  this,"  when 
he  means,  "  /  think  my»elf  BaSoJ*  The  former  ia  the  more  modest  form  of 
expression,  and  gives  more  weight  to  what  he  says.  Outiclf  ia  a  plural 
form  of  the  first  compound  personal  pronoun,  used  when  one  person  is  de« 
noted  and  only  then. 

In  common  discourse,  we  constantly  use  the  plural  in  addressing  a  single 
person.  We  do  not  say,  *'  Hast  thou  hurt  thyself?  "  but,  "  Have  you  hurt 
yourself  f "  Yourself  is  a  plural  form  of  the  second  compound  personal 
pronoun,  used  when  one  person  is  denoted  and  only  then.  The  pronoun 
of  the  second  person  is  now  used  in  the  singular  only  in  addressing  the 
Almighty,  m  poetical  style,  and  by  the  Friends,  or  Quakers,  in  common 
conversation. 

133.  Ye. —  Ye  is  now  rarely  used,  except  as  a  nomi- 
native in  poetry  or  solemn  style. 

134:.  It. — It  is  sometimes  used  indefinitely,  without 
reference  to  any  particular  antecedent ;  as,  "  It  snows." 
"Is^^  well  with  thee?" 

It  formerly  lacked  the  possessive  case.  Hence,  in  our  version  of  the 
Bible,  its  nowhere  occurs,  but  his  or  tier  is  used  in  its  place.  We  read,  "  IT 
the  salt  have  lost  his  savor,"  *'  the  tree  of  life  which  yielded  her  fruit ". 

//,  though  destitute  of  gender,  is  sometimes  applied  to  living  things ; 
as,  "  That  child  will  hurt  its  voice."  "  The  crocodile  never  gives  up  its  prey.' 

EXERCISE. 

Mention  fint  the  simple  and  then  the  compound  personal pronmtn 
of  the  first  person^  singular  number^  ohjeetite  cme ;  of  the  second^ 
plural,  possessive ;  of  the  third,  singular,  masculine,  nominatite  ; 
of  the  second,  singular,  objective;  of  the  third,  singular,  feminine, 
objective;  of  the  first,  plural,  possessive;  of  the  thirds  plural,  nomi- 
native; of  the  first,  singular,  nominative;  of  the  second,  singular, 
nominative;  of  the  third,  singular,  objectite  (no  gender). 

Correct  ours' ;  theii^' ;  it's ;  your's ;  his'n  ;  hern  ;  ourn ;  youm ; 
bisself;  theirselves;  itsself;  theirn. 

«»ed?  TIow  do  w«  eoiuit«nt1y  u«e  the  plnrftl  In  common  diecoursot  When  it 
yowm^f  Dii«d  f  When  alone  ia  the  pronoun  of  the  aecond  portion  now  nscd  In  the 
ainimlart  138.  What  la  aald  of  y*?  134.  How  ia  it  aomotlmes  unodl  What  ia 
nacd  inatMid  uf  its  in  onr  version  of  the  Btblot  Give  examplea.  Why  la  not  Oa 
found  f  To  what  la  it  aometimea  applied  t  Give  example*. 
8* 


58         EULES  FOK  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

LESSON  XXV. 

RULES    FOB    NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. 

135. — In  parsing,  rules  must  be  given  for  the  ease  of 
nouns  and  pronouns.  The  same  rules,  for  the  most  part, 
apply  to  both.  We  include  both  under  the  general' 
name  of  Substantive, 

136.  Rule  I. — A  substantive  that  is  the  subject  of  a 
verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

The  subject  generally  precedes  its  verb  ;  as,  "  Thou  lovesV  In  some 
sentences,  however,  the  verb  precedes  its  subject ;  as,  "  Lovest  thou  me  ?  " 
"  Here  is  a  join."     "  Then  cometh  the  Judgment.''^ 

137.  Rule  II. — A  substantive  used  independently  is 
in  the  nominative  case. 

138.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  independently, 

1.  When  it  represents  that  of  which  some  action  or  state  is  assumed 
4n  stead  of  being  affirmed ;  as,  "  Napoleon  having  charged,  the  battle  waa 

decided."     "  Sh£  being  well,  all  is  well." 

2.  "When  it  represents  an  object  addressed;  as,  ^^  0  Eobert,  do  not  go." 
"  Friends^  countrymen^  and  lovers^  lend  me  your  ears." 

3.  In  exclamations ;  as,  "  Heavens  1  what  a  sight !  "  "  Ah !  wretch- 
ed «?e.^" 

4.  When  there  is  a  sudden  break  in  the  construction,  and  a  new  subject 
or  object  is  introduced  ;  as,  "  The  bride — what  can  I  say  of  her  ?  " 

139.  Rule  III. — A  substantive  that  modifies  a  noun 
denoting  a  different  person  or  thing,  by  implying  pos- 
session, origin,  or  fitness,  is  in  the  possessive  case  :  as, 
SauVs}o\iniQj  ;  Charles's  wain ;  my  hand ;  his  promises. 

140.  Rule  IY. — A  substantive  that  is  the  object  of 
a  verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case :  as,  Lovo 
God;  help^^5/  the  horrors  of  ^^<^7•  /  ior  them, 

141.  Rule  Y. — A  modifying  substantive,  denoting 

135.  For  what  must  rules  be  given  in  parsing?  "What  do  we  mean  by  a  Sub. 
Btantive?  136.  Recite  Rule  L  What  is  the  position  of  the  subject  as  regards  ita 
verb  ?  137.  Recite  Rule  II.  138.  When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  used  independently  t 
139.  Recite  Rule  HI.    140.  Recite  Rule  IV.    141.  Recite  Rule  V.     142.  Recite 


EULE8  FOB  NOUNB  AUD  PRONOUNS.         51) 

time,  direction,  extent,  quantity,  or  value,  often  stands 
in  the  objective  case  without  a  preposition ;  as,  "  Last 
week^  be  went  weat^  "  It  was  an  inch  wide,  weigbed 
an  oujice,  and  cost  me  a  shiUing.''^ 

142.  Rule  VL— One  substantive  joined  to  another 
denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  in  the  same  case. 

"  The  house  of  Washington,  the  father  of  his  country ; "  father^  joined 
to  Woithington  and  denoting  the  same  person,  is  in  the  same  case  as 
Washington, — the  objective.  "Thou  hypocrite;"  hi/pocrite,  joined  to 
thou  and  denoting  the  same  person,  is  in  the  same  case, — the  nominative. 
So,  I  myself;  ye  renegades ;  Constantine  the  emperor. 

143.  A  substantive  thus  used  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  the  one 
to  which  it  is  joined.     It  explains  the  latter,  or  adds  to  its  meaning. 

Observe  that  tliere  is  no  apposition  when  one  substantive  stands  in  the 
logical  subject,  and  the  other  in  the  predicate ;  as,  "  Rome  is  a  city."  The 
next  rule  treats  of  this  construction. 

144.  Rule  YII.— A  verb  that  has  no  object  takes 
the  same  case  after  as  before  it,  when  both  words  refer 
to  the  same  person  or  thing. 

"  I  know  that  Charles  is  a  scholar."  Charles,  the  subject  of  the  verb 
M,  is  in  the  nominative  case ;  therefore  scholar,  after  the  verb,  is  also  in 
tlie  nominative. — "  I  know  Charles  to  be  a  scholar."  Charles,  being  the 
object  of  the  verb  know,  is  in  the  objective ;  therefore  scholar,  after  the 
verb  to  be,  is  also  in  the  objective. 

This  rule  applies,  even  when  the  natural  order  of  the  words  is  changed. 
—•'Who  are  they?"  "Are  you  a  friend?"  "Lucifer  he  was  called." 
They,  you,  and  he,  are  the  subjects  in  the  nominative  case ;  icAo,  friend^ 
and  iMcxfer,  are  in  the  nominative  after  the  verba 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  the  cate  of  each  noun  and,  penonal  pronoun^  and  under 
rhich  of  the  above  ruleg  it  falls: — Figures,  the  characters  by  which 
^e  denote  numbers,  were  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  eleventh 

Rale  VI.  Give  esamplmi.  14S.  WhKt  la  Mid  of  a  sabatantiTe  than  Joined  to 
another  t  Wliat  doee  the  •abnUntlve  \n  tppoeUlon  do  I  Under  what  circnin- 
»Unee«  U  there  no  appneltlont  144.  Recite  Rule  VII.  Does  thU  rule  applj 
If  the  natural  order  of  the  words  U  changed  t    Give  examples. 


GO  PAESING   FOKMS. 

century. — "Know  thyself,"  was  a  favorite  maxim  of  Bion's. — 
Isocrates  was  ninety-four  years  old  when  he  wrote  his  Panathe- 
niiicus,  a  eulogy  on  Athens. — ^The  sun  having  set,  your  brother 
betook  himself  home ;  mine  stayed  all  night. — A  horse — a  horse — 
my  kingdom  for  a  horse ! — Twenty-five  miles  from  New  York,  the 
Hudson  is  a  league  in  width. 


LESSON  XXYI. 

PARSING   FORMS   FOR   NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS. 

145.  Parse  nouns  and  personal  pronouns,  and  apply 
the  rules  given  above,  according  to  the  following 
forms : — 

Thou  hast^  0  friend^  a  father^ s  heart. 

A  sentence :  grammatical  subject,  tJtou ;  logical  subject,  thou^  0 
friend ;  predicate,  hast  a  father's  heart. 

Thou  is  a  simple  personal  pronoun,  in  the  second  person,  singular 
number,  masculine  gender,  nominative  case,  the  subject  of  the  verb  hast : — 
Rule^  A  substantive  that  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Friend  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  second  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  nominative  independent: — Rule^  A  substantive  used 
independently  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Father's  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  possessive  case,  and  modifies  the  noun  heart : — Eule^ 
A  substantive  that  modifies  a  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing,  by 
implying  possession,  origin,  or  fitness,  is  in  the  possessive  case. 

Heart  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  ob- 
jective case,  the  object  of  the  verb  hast : — Rule,  A  substantive  that  is  the 
object  of  a  verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Wote. — The  word  father'*s  shows  that  in  this  sentence  thou  and  friend 
jdenote  males ;  therefore  we  call  them  masculine.  Had  the  sentence  been, 
*'  Thou  hast,  0  friend,  a  merciful  heart,"  there  would  have  been  no  way  of 
determining  the  sex,  and  we  should  have  parsed  thou  and  friend  as  of 
common  gender. 

J^ifty  years  agOs  Fielding  the  novelist  was  a  great 
favorite. 


PAB8INO  FORMS.  61 

A  MBtenoe :  grAmmatical  subject,  Fielding ;  logical  subject,  Ficldingy 
the  novtiist ;  pre«iicate,  uxu  a  great  favorite  Jifty  years  ago. 

Years  id  a  conimoa  doud,  in  the  third  person,  plural  number,  object- 
ive case,  denoting  time : — Rule^  A  modifying  substantive  denoting  time, 
direction,  extent,  quantity,  or  value,  often  stands  in  the  objective  caao 
without  a  preposition. 

Fielding  is  a  proper  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number 
masculine  gender,  nominative  case,  the  subject  of  the  verb  was : — Rule, 
A  substantive  that  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Koveliat  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  nominative  case,  in  apposition  with  Itelding: — Rule^ 
One  substantive  joined  to  another  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  in 
the  same  case. 

Fayorite  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  nominative  case  after  the  verb  was : — Rule^  A  verb  that 
has  no  object  takes  the  same  case  after  as  before  it,  when  both  words  refer 
to  the  same  person  or  thing. 

These  bodies  of  ours  will  decay. — Time  itself  shall 
he  no  more. 

Ouri  is  a  simple  personal  pronoun,  in  the  first  person,  plural  number, 
common  gender,  possessive  case,  and  modifies  the  noun  possessing  under- 
stood : — Rule,  A  substantive  that  modifies  a  noun  denoting  a  different  per- 
son or  thing,  by  implying  possession,  origin,  or  fitness,  is  in  the  possessive 
case. 

Itielf  is  a  compound  personal  pronoun,  in  the  third  person,  singular 
number,  nominative  case,  in  apposition  with  time : — Rule,  Ono  substan- 
tive joined  to  another  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  in  the  same 
case. 

EXERCISE. 

Treat  (he  sentsneety  and  parse  the  nouns  and  personal  pronounSy 
according  to  the  above  models : — France  contains  immense  tracts 
of  land  in  forests. — "  Others  *  may  submit  to  Fate,"  said  Oassar  ; 
'*  bo  it  mine  to  conquer  her." — The  tree  is  known  t  by  his  fruit. — 
In  the  scenery  of  Switzerland,  Nature  has  outdone  herself. — Mary, 
that  child  of  yours,  has  cried  itself  asleep. — Scipio  having  been 

*  A  MOtenoe  :  grammatical  aubject,  Ceuar ;  logical  aabjeot,  Cettarf  predicate, 
midy  "  othen  may  tubnUt  to  Fate  ;  be  it  mine  to  conquer  her^ 

t  A  Tcrb  may  ooodst  of  Mveral  word*.  Is  known  1«  the  verb  la  UUs  acntenoe ; 
koM  outdone^  In  the  ooxt. 


62  --  RELATIVE   PKONOUNS. 

sent  into  Africa,  Hannibal  had  to  follow  him  thither.— What  a 
spectacle  presented  itself  to  our  eyes ! — You  yourself  have  said 
you  were  my  fi'iend. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

SIMPLE    RELATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

146.  A  Relative  Pronoun  is  one  used  to  connect  partS 
of  a  sentence,  without  change  of  form  for  the  different 
persons  and  numbers. 

The  relatives  are  so  called  because  they  relate  to 
some  word  or  words  in  the  same  sentence,  usually  going 
before,  and  therefore  known  as  the  Antecedent. 

147.  The  relative  pronouns  are  distinguished  as 
Simple  and  Compound. 

^    148.  Simple  Relatives. — ^Tlie  Simple  Relative  Pro- 
nouns are  wlio^  which,  that,  as,  and  what. 

149.  Who  is  applied  to  persons,  and  animals  and 
things  personified ;  as,  "  Mechanics,  V)ho  work  hard, 
enjoy  a  day  of  rest."  "  A  butterfly,  who  was  flitting 
past,  took  up  the  conversation."  "  Hope,  who  whispers 
fine  promises,  often  deceives  us." 

Observe  in  these  examples,  as  well  as  those  given  below,  that  the  rela- 
tive connects  parts  of  a  sentence.  In  the  first  example,  it  connects  who 
work  hard  with  mechanics  enjoy  a  day  of  rest.  What  does  it  connect  in 
the  second  example  ?    What,  in  the  third  ? 

150.  Which  is  applied  to  animals  and  things ;  as, 
"  The  alligator,  which  resembles  the  crocodile,  is  soine- 
times  eighteen  feet  long."  "  Reason,  which  is  the- 
greatest  of  divine  gifts,  belongs  to  man  alone." 

146.  What  is  a  Relative  Pronoun  ?  Why  are  the  Relatives  so  called  ?  147.  How 
are  the  relatr\-e  pronoune  divided  ?  148.  Mention  the  simple  relatives.  149.  To 
what  is  who  applied?  What  is  to  be  observed  In  the  examples  of  relatives? 
160.  To  what  is  which  applied  ?    To  what  was  which  formerly  applied  ?    W^here  dc 


THE   SIMPLE   EELATTV'ES.  C2 

WJiich  was  formerly  applied  to  pcraons,  as  well  aa  trAo.  It  is  fre- 
quently so  used  in  the  Bible ;  as,  **  Our  Father,  which  art  in  llcaven.''  This 
usage  is  uo  longer  admissible. 

151.  T/iat  is  applied  to  persons,  animals,  and  things, 
and  implies  a  closer  connection  with  the  antecedent 
than  who  or  which  /  as,  "  Mechanics  that  work  haj-d, 
enjoy  a  day  of  rest."  "  A  butterfly  that  was  flitting 
past,  took  up  the  conversation."  "Every  day  that 
passes,  has  its  lessons." 

TTiat  is  not  always  a  relative.  When  it  is,  who,  which,  or  whom,  used 
in  its  place,  will  make  sense.  Thus,  in  the  examples  just  given.  Mechanics 
who  work  hard,  A  butterfly  who  was  flitting  past,  Every  day  which  passes. 

152.  As  is  applied  to  persons,  animals,  and  things, 
after  suchy  same,  as  many,  so  many,  as  much,  and  so 
much  /  as,  "  Such  as  [equivalent  to  those  who]  are 
virtuous,  are  happy."  "  You  wear  the  same  kind  of 
hat  as  [equivalent  to  thaf]  I  wear."  "  I  have  as  many 
horses  as  you."  "  So  many  of  us  as  were  baptized." 
"  He  gave  as  much  as  he  could  aftbrd." 

Asia  A  relative,  only  when  used  in  such  expressions  as  the  above. 

153.  What  is  applied  to  things,  and  is  equivalent  to 
antecedent  and  relative  ;  as,  "  I  have  what  [that  which} 
I  desired." 

154.  Declension. — ^Tlie  plural  of  the  simple  relatives 
is  like  the  singular.     They  are  thus  declined  : — 

8.  it  P.      Rd:  P.       S.  d'  P. 
That,  As,  What, 


8.AP. 

8.d:P. 

Kom. 

Who, 

Which, 

Po»a. 

whose. 

whose, 

ObJ. 

whom. 

which. 

that.  as.  what. 


»•  frequently  find  It  to  aaeU  t  181.  To  what  U  that  applied  ?  Whnt  degree  uf 
eonneetinti  doce  it  Indicate  f  When  i«  that  %  relative  ?  182.  To  what  is  om  Applied t 
After  what  ©xpre««loi»e  ia  It  uaed  f  153.  To  what  in  tthnt  applitd  f  To  what  it  It 
•qoivalent  t    IM.  DeoUae  the  aUnple  relatlTea.    Whlob  of  them  do  not  obange  t 


64  THE  ANTECEDENT. 

155.  Position  of  the  Antecedent. — ^Tlie  antecedent 
generally  precedes  the  relative  ;  as,  "  He  who  slanders 
me  is  my  foe."  Sometimes  the  order  is  changed,  and 
the  relative  stands  first ;  as,  "  Who  slanders  me,  he  is 
my  foe." 

156.  The  antecedent  is  sometimes  understood.  "  Who 
takes  my  life,  but  rids  me  of  a  load ; "  here  he  is  under- 
etood,  as  the  antecedent  of  who. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  rela  tines,  and  give  reasons  for  the  changes  made.  Men* 
lion  the  antecedent  of  each  relative.  Parse  the  nouns  and  the  per- 
ional  pronouns : — The  dog  who  barks  seldom  bites. — People  what 
live  in  glass  houses  should  not  throw  stones. — The  men  and  horses 
whom  I  saw,  were  a  mile  off. — The  men  and  women  which  I  saw 
were  foreigners. — Time,  which  has  mowed  down  myriads  with 
his  scythe,  will  lay  me  low  also. — Such  parents  which  have  their 
children's  good  at  heart,  will  require  them  to  obey. — After  hia 
defeat,  IiTapoleon  was  never  the  same  zohich  he  was  before. — They 
have  that  they  desired. 


LESSON   XXYIII. 

COMPOUND    RELATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

157.  The  Compound  Relative  pronouns  are, 
Whoever^  whosoever,  whoso,  applied  only  to  persons. 
Whichever,  whichsoever,  applied  to  persons,  animals, 

and  things. 
Whatever,  whatsoever,  whatso,  applied  only  to  things. 

Whoso  and  whatso  are  now  rarely  used. 

155.  What  is  the  position  of  the  antecedent  t    156.  What  do  we  Boraetimea  find 
with  respect  to  the  antecedent  f 

167.  Mention  the  compoond  relatives,  and  tell  to  what  each  is  applied.   Which 


THE  COMPOUND  RELATIVES.  65 

158.  Force. — A  compound  relative  is  generally 
equivalent  to  an  antecedent  and  a  simple  relative. 

Examplen. — "  Whoever  [that  is,  any  one  that]  has  visited  France,  knows 
this."  "  Tjike  whichever  [eitfier  that]  you  choose."  "  Whatever  [everjf 
thhiff  that]  la,  is  right." 

1.^9.  Since  an  antecedent  is  implied  in  the  compound  relatives,  no  an  ' 
tectnlent  should  be  used  before  them.  For  empha><is,  however,  one  h 
sometimes  introduced  after  them.  We  read  in  the  Bible,  "Whatsoevei 
he  saith  unto  you,  do  i7."  Were  the  order  changed,  it  would  have  to  be 
omitted: — ''Do  whatsoever  he  saith  unto  you." 

IGO.  Declension. —  Whoever  and  whosoever  Sire  thus 
declined : — 

Sinff.  and  Plural.  Sitig.  and  Plural. 
Xom.  Whoever,  Whosoever, 

Ponx.  whosever,  whosesoever, 

Obj.    whomever.  whomsoever. 

W/ioso  occurs  only  in  the  nominative. 
The  other  compound  relatives  do  not  change,  and  arc 
wanting  in  the  possessive  case. 

161.  Parsing  of  Relatives. — ^In  parsing  who,  which, 
that,  or  as,  two  rules  must  be  given  :  one  for  its  person 
and  number,  which  are  always  the  same  as  its  antece- 
dent's ;  and  another  for  its  case,  which  is  independent 
of  its  antecedent's. 

162.  The  compound  relatives  are  sometimes  so  used 
as  not  to  imply  an  antecedent ;  as,  "  Whatever  I  do,  I 
can  not  please  you."  Here  whatever  is  not  equivalent 
to  ani/  thing  that.  In  such  cases  they  are  parsed  like  the 
pei-sonals,  and  one  rule  suflBces. 

•re  now  rarely  ntod  t  158.  To  what  l«  »  compoand  relative  generally  equivalent. 
Xllustrata  this.    IfiO.  Under  what  eircamsita  i  antecedent  be  uaed  with 

aoompoond  ralatlvet    Give  an  example  i  !o.    160.  Decline  whoever. 

Decllu*  »tkom)n>«r.    In  what  caae  alooe  la  tr .'    What  ig  aaid  of  the  oth«r 

compound  r(>latirc>ffV  161.  What  dlrertlonit  are  ^vcn  for  pamlnff  who,  which,  thaty 
aiid<w7  162.  Bowaretb*  compound  rvlativea  ■ometimoa  uiwdt  In  such  caucus 
how  are  they  parMd  t    What  la  generally  implied  In  the  compound  relatlvM  and 


6Q  PAESING   OF   KELATIYES. 

Generally,  however,  the  compound  relatives  and  the 
simple  relative  what  imply  an  antecedent  in  themselves. 
They  then  represent  two  cases,  one  as  antecedent  and 
the  other  as  relative  ;  and  two  rules  are  necessary,  unless 
both  cases  fall  under  the  same  rule. 

Thus : — "  I  will  buy  what  is  needed."  As  antecedent,  what  is  in  tl^» 
objective  case,  the  object  of  the  verb  will  buy  ;  as  relative,  it  is  in  the  nom- 
inative, the  subject  of  the  verb  is  needed.  Two  rules  are  therefore  necessary. 
"  They  know  not  what  they  do."  As  antecedent,  what  is  in  the  objective, 
the  object  of  the  verb  know;  as  relative,  it  is  objective  also,  the  object  of 
the  verb  do.     Here  one  rule  will  suffice. 

163.  Wlioever  and  whosoever^  like  the  other  compound  relatives,  are 
generally  equivalent  to  antecedent  and  relative,  and  therefore  represent 
two  cases.  Their  form,  however,  changes  in  the  different  cases ;  and,  as 
they  can  appear  in  but  one  form,  they  take  that  which  corresponds  with 
their  case  as  relatives.  Thus: — "A  reward  will  be  given  to  whoever  {any 
one  who']  shall  arrest  the  criminal."  As  antecedent,  whoever  is  in  the  objective 
case,  the  object  of  the  preposition  to ;  as  relative,  it  is  in  the  nominative, 
the  subject  of  the  verb  shall  arrest.  Its  case  as  relative  determines  its 
form,  and  it  is  therefore  put  in  the  nominative. 

164.  Rule  YIII. — A  relative  agrees  with  its  antece- 
dent in  person  and  number. 

165.  Models. — Pope^  who  translated  Horner^  was  one 
of  the  greatest  geniuses  that  adorned  Queen  Anne^s  reign, 

"Who  is  a  simple  relative  pronoun,  and  has  Pope  for  its  antecedent,  with 
wliich  it  agrees  in  the  third  person,  singular  number — Rule^  A  relative 
agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person  and  number ;  in  the  nominative  case, 
the  subject  of  the  verb  translated— Rtde^  A  substantive  that  is  the  subject 
of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

That  is  a  simple  relative  pronoun,  and  has  geniuses  for  its  antecedent, 
with  which  it  agrees  in  the  third  person,  plural  number — Rule,  A  relative 
agrees,  &c. ;  in  the  nominative  case,  the  subject  of  the  verb  adorned — Rule^ 
A  substantive  that  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

whatl  How  many  rules  are  then  necessary  f  Ulustrate  this.  163.  To  what  are 
tchoevpT  and  tchosoever  generally  equivalent?  As  they  have  different  forms  in 
the  different  cases,  which  form  do  they  take?  Illustrate  thia.  164.  Recite  Rule 
VllL    165.  Learn  the  parsmg  forms. 


PARSING    OF   RELATIVES.  C7 

As  man?/  as  give  ear  to  what  I say^  shall  not  repent 
thereof. 

As  (after  many)  is  a  simple  relative  pronoun,  and  has  persons  tndep- 
stood  for  ita  antecedent,  with  which  it  agrees  in  the  third  person,  plurai 
number — Rule,  A  relative  agrees,  &c. ;  in  the  nominative  case,  the  subject 
of  Uie  verb  gii'e — Bule,  A  substantive  that  is  the  subject,  &c. 

What  is  a  simple  rehitive  pronoun,  equivalent  to  antecedent  and  rela- 
tive ;  in  the  third  person,  singular  number ;  as  antecedent,  in  the  objective 
case,  the  object  of  the  preposition  to;  as  relative,  in  the  olyective  case,  the 
object  of  the  verb  sat/ : — liule,  A  substantive  that  is  the  object  of  a  verb 
or  preposition  is  m  the  objective  case. 

Jle  bids  whoever  is  athirst  come. 

Whoever  is  a  compound  relative  pronoun,  equivalent  to  antecedent  and 
relative,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number ;  as  antecedent,  in  the 
objective  case,  the  object  of  the  verb  bids — Rule^  A  substantive  that  is  the 
object  of  a  verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case ;  as  relative,  in  the 
nominative  case  (and  therefore  it  has  the  nominative  form),  the  subject  of 
the  verb  is — Rule,  A  substantive  that  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the 
nominative  case. 

^Vhatsoever  he  saith  unto  youy  do  it. 

Whatsoever  is  a  compound  relative  pronoun,  equivalent  to  antecedent 
and  i«iative,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number ;  as  antecedent,  in  the 
nominatire  independent — Rule,  A  substantive  used  independently  is  in  the 
nominative  case;  as  rdative,  in  the  objective  case,  the  object  of  the  verb 
saith — Rule,  A  substantive  that  is  the  object  of  a  verb,  Ac. 

Whosever  lot  it  is  tofaU^  weHl  murmur  Tiot. 

Whosever  is  a  compound  relative,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
possessive  case,  and  modifies  the  noun  lot : — Rule,  A  substantive  that 
modifies  a  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing,  by  implying  possession, 
origin,  or  fitness,  is  in  the  possessive  case. 

EXERCISE. 

Pans  the  nouns,  and  the  personal  and  relative  pronouns:-^ 
Qneen  Anne,  whose  husband  was  a  Dane,  was  the  last  of  the 
Stuarts  that  reigned  in  England. — Whoever  wins,  may  laugh. — 
Few  that  live  in  palaces  know  wliat  poor  men  suffer. — You  your- 
self, who  blame  me  so  much,  have  the  same  faults. — I  who  speak, 


68  INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

and  thou  who  hearest,  will  soon  be  in  the  grave. — Who  calls  m© 
happy,  little  does  he  know. — Whichever  I  select,  I  fear  she  will 
blame  me. 


LESSON   XXIX. 

INTERROGATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

166.  An  Interrogative  Pronoun  is  one  nsed  for  asking 
a  question,  in  answering  a  question  indefinitely,  and  in 
similar  indefinite  expressions ;  as,  wlio^  which,  and  what 
in  tlie  following  sentences  : — 

Questions.—  ^\^o  did  it  ?     Which  was  it  ?     Wliat  is  truth  ? 
Indefinite  Answers. — I  know  not  who  did  it,  which  it  was,  what  truth  is. 
Indef.  Expressions. — Find  out  who  did  it,  which  it  was,  what  truth  is. 

167.  The  interrogative  pronouns  are, 

Who,  applied  only  to  persons.    "  Who  is  there  ? " 
Which,   applied  to  persons,   animals,   and    things. 

"  Which  of  you  ?  "  "  WJiich  of  the  cats  ? "   "  Which 

of  the  tables  ? " 
What,  applied  only  to  things.     "  What  do  I  see  ? " 

168.  Whether  was  formerly  applied  to  persons  and  things  as  an  interrog- 
ative pronoun ;  as  "  Wliether  is  greater,  the  gold  or  the  temple  that  sancti> 
fieth  the  gold  ?  "    It  is  no  longer  used  in  this  sense. 

169.  The  interrogatives  are  declined  like  the  corre- 
sponding relatives,  §  154. 

170.  The  interrogatives  and  relatives  must  not  be  confounded.  Observe, 
1.  That  the  introduction  of  an  antecedent  converts  an  interrogative  into  a 
relative.  2.  That  what  is  not  an  interrogative,  but  a  relative,  when  equiv- 
lalent  to  that  which.     Thus : — 

I       Interrogatives. —  Who  said  so?     Do  you  know  who  said  so?     I  can  not 
remember  who  said  so.     I  know  what  [not  equivalent  to  that  which']  it  is. 

166.  What  is  an  Interrogative  Pronoun  ?  Give  exampleB.  167.  Name  the  in- 
terrogatives, and  tell  to  what  each  is  applied.  168.  What  other  word  was  formerly 
nsed  as  an  interrogative  pronoun  ?  169.  Decline  the  interrogatives.  170.  From 
what  miut  the  Interrogatives  be  distingaished  ?    What  effect  has  the  introduction 


PARSING   OF   l.SiLiCKuuAii\i.>.  09 

Relatives. — The  person  trhoaaid  80  ia  here.  Do  you  know  the  man  ttho 
said  80?  I  can  not  respect  those  tc/io  said  so.  I  said  what  [that  which] 
you  told  me. 

171.  Parsing. — ^Tlie  interrogative  pronouns  are  al- 
ways in  the  third  person.  In  parsing,  mention  their 
person,  number,  case,  and  the  rule  that  applies. 

What  is  that  f —  Whose  hooks  are  those  f    Yours  f 

What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, noaiiuative  case  after  the  verb  m  : — Rule^  A  verb  that  has  no  object 
takes  the  same  case  after  as  before  it,  when  both  words  refer  to  the  same 
person  or  thing. 

Whose  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, possessive  case,  and  modifies  the  noun  hooks : — Rule,  A  substantive 
that  modifies  a  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing,  by  implying  pos- 
session, origin,  or  fitness,  is  in  the  possessive  case. 

Toars  is  a  personal  pronoun,  in  the  second  person,  singular  number, 
common  gender,  possessive  case,  and  modifies  books  understood  {yours 
being  here  equivalent  to  are  thet/  your  books  ?) : — Rule,  A  substantive 
that  modifies  a  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing,  &c 

172.  To  parse  this  bst  word,  we  have  to  supply  what  is  understood. 
So,  when  a  question  is  answered  with  a  single  word.  **  Whom  did  Madison 
succeed  ?  Jefferson."  That  is,  he  succeeded  Jefferson  ;  Jefferson  is  in  the 
objective  case,  the  object  of  the  verb  ffi/ccw-cferf understood. — "Who  suc- 
ceeded Jefferson?  Madison."  That  is,  Madison  succeeded  him;  Madison 
is  in  the  nominative  case,  the  subject  of  the  verb  succeeded  understood. — 
In  such  constructions,  when  you  are  in  doubt  as  to  the  case,  supply  ths 
words  understood. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nanns^  and  the  personal,  relative,  and  interrogative 
pronouns: — Whom  did  Napoleon  marry?  Josephine  and  Maria 
Lonisa. — Which  is  the  house  ?  I  forget  which  it  is. — What  is  a 
noun?  A  word  used  as  a  name. — Who  were  tlie  inventors  ot 
printing?  Gutenberg,  Schoeflfer,  and  Faust. — To  whom  did  Colum- 
bus first  apply  for  aid  ?    To  the  Spanish  ?    No ;  the  Genoese.— I 

of  an  snteoedentt  When  to  wkta  not  an  interrogative  f  Give  example*.  171.  In 
what  person  are  the  Interrogative  prorounfl  t  In  paraln^  them,  what  must  ho  men- 
tioned f  Learn  the  paraioff  forms.  172.  What  must  be  done  in  parsing,  when  a 
question  to  asked  or  aoawared  with  a  single  word  t    Give  examples. 


70  ADJECTIVE   PRONOUNS. 

know  what  you  saw. — Whose  clothes  are  these?    James's  and 
mine. 

Make  two  sentences  with  simple  personal  pronouns  for  subjects; 
two  with  intei^ogatives  for  subjects;  two  containing  simple  rela- 
tives in  the  possessive  case  ;  two  containing  compound  relatives  in 
the  objective;  two  containing  compound  personals  in  the  objective. 


LESSON   XXX. 

ADJECTIVE    PRONOUNS. 

173.  Adjective  Pronouns. — All  pronouns  not  in- 
cluded in  the  classes  already  named  are  called  Adjective 
Pronouns.    They  are  divided  into  the  following  classes : — 

1.  Demonstratives,  which  point  out  with  precision  the 
objects  to  which  they  refer  : — T/iis,  that,  former,  latter, 
hoth,  same. 

2.  Distributives,  which  represent  objects  as  taken 
separately : — Each,  every,  either,  neither. 

3.  Indefinites,  which  refer  to  objects  generally,  with- 
out specifying  any  in  particular: — One,  none,  other, 
another,  some,  all,  any,  such. 

174.  Caution. — It  is  only  when  used  in  stead  of 
nouns  or  equivalent  expressions  that  these  words  are 
adjective  pronouns.  When  used  with  nouns,  they  are 
adjectives. 

"  David  and  Jonathan  loved  each  other."  Each  and  other  are  here 
used  in  stead  of  nouns,  and  are  adjective  pronouns. — ''  Each  day  brings 
other  duties."  -E'ac/t  and  other  are  here  used  with  nouns,  and  are  therefore 
adjectives. 

175.  Declension. — This,  that,  one,  and  other,  are 
thus  declined  : — 

173.  What  class  of  pronouns  remains  to  be  treated  ?  How  are  adjective  pro- 
nouns subdividod?  Define  Demonstratives  ;  Distributives;  Indefinites,  174.  When 
are  these  words  adjective  pronouns  ?  When  used  with  nouns,  what  part  of  speech 
are  they !    Illustrate  this.    175.  Decline  this;  that ;  one;  other;  another.    What  ia 


ADJECTIVE 

PRONOUNS. 

71 

8. 

P. 

S.         P. 

S.          P. 

8. 

P. 

N.  Thia, 

theae, 

That,    those, 

One,      ones. 

Other, 

others, 

P.  

one's,     ones'. 

other's, 

others', 

0.  thia; 

these. 

that ;    those. 

one ;      ones. 

other; 

others. 

Another  is  declined  in  the  singular  like  other ^  but  has  no  plural.  The 
TCist  of  the  adjective  pronouns  are  indeclinable  (that  is,  do  not  change), 
and  are  never  used  in  the  possessive. 

176.  Number. — Each^  every,  either,  and  neither,  are 
always  singular.  Both  is  always  plural.  Former, 
latter,  same,  none,  some,  all,  any,  and  such,  are  used  in 
both  numbers  without  change  of  form.  Their  number 
is  determined  by  that  of  the  word  for  which  they  stand. 

177.  Remarkn. — Tftat  and  thi»y  former  and  latter,  are  frequently  used 
to  distinguish  two  objects  mentioned  immediately  before.  Thus  used,  that 
and  former  refer  to  the  more  remote,  or  the  first-mentioned ;  thx»  and 
Icdter,  to  the  nearer,  or  last-mentioned.  Thus  : — "  Mercantile  and  profes- 
sional life  both  have  their  advantages  :  this  [or  the  latter,  that  is,  profes- 
tionallife]  opens  the  way  to  fame;  tfiai  [or  the  former,  that  is,  mercantile 
life^  leads  to  an  honorable  competence." 

178.  Some  assign  a  possessive  case  to  former  and  latter;  "The 
former's  victory  counterbalanced  the  latter*8  defeat."  These  possessivca 
are  not  authorized.  Correct  thus: — "  The  victory  of  the  former  counter- 
balanced the  defeat  of  the  latter.'^ 

179.  Paesino. — They  killed  one  another. — Parsi- 
mony and  prodigality  should  both  he  avoided. 

One  is  an  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  nomi- 
native case,  in  apposition  with  they: — Rule,  One  substantive  joined  to 
another  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  in  the  same  case. 

Another  is  an  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
objective  case,  the  object  of  the  verb  killed: — Rule,  The  object  of  a  verb 
or  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Both  is  an  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  third  person,  plural  number, 
nominative  case,  in  apposition  with  parsimony  and  prodigality : — Rute, 

wild  of  the  rest  of  the  a-ljectlve  pronouna  t  176.  WhJch  of  the  »djectlv©  pronouns 
•re  »lwmy«  tlitgulnr  ?  Which  Is  always  plural  t  W^hlch  arc  u«ed  in  both  iiumber* 
without  change  of  form!  How  is  their  number  determined  ?  177.  For  what  ant 
thai  and  lhi»,  former  and  tatter^  often  used  t  When  so  used,  to  what  do  that  and 
former  xviar  f  To  what  do  thia  and  lalter  refer  I  178.  What  case  ot  former  and 
latter  L<t  oondsmned  as  tuwuthorlzed  t    170.  Learn  tbo  parsing  forma. 


7i5  THE   ARTICLE. 

One  substantive  joined  to  another  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  in 
the  same  case. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  twuiu  and  pronouns : — Sucli  is  the  case. — They  will 
perish,  each  and  every  of  them. — Here  are  three  shoes,  a  new  one 
and  two  old  ones. — Do  either  you  choose.  I  will  do  neither. — 
Give  some  to  me.  I  have  not  any.  I  have  none  to  spare. — She 
can  not  mean  that. — These  are  beautiful,  those  amiable;  the 
former  we  admire,  the  latter  we  love. — Listen  to  others'  woes. — 
He  executed  a  deed  to  Eichard  Roe,  and  the  same  was  duly 
recorded. 

Supply  pronouns  of  the  classes  indicated : — I  {compound  per- 
sonal) also  am  a  man. — Love  all  men,  do  harm  to  {adjective  pro- 
noun).— {Interrogative)  does  not  love  {personal)  country? — {Com- 
pound relative)  I  may  do,  I  will  not  desert  {personal)  friends. — 
{Adjective pronoun)  who  grieve,  shall  find  comfort  for  {personal) 
sorrows. — Such  {relative)  do  good,  shall  have  their  reward. 


LESSON  XXXI. 

THE    ARTICLE. 

180.  The  Article. — ^The  third  part  of  speecli  is  the 
Article. 

The  apple ;  an  apple.  The  book ;  a  book. 
When  we  say  the  apple^  the  book,  we  refer  to  some  particular  apple 
and  book.  When  we  say  an  apple,  a  book,  we  mean  one  of  each,  but  no 
particular  one.  This  difference  of  meaning  results  from  the  use  of  the 
words  the  and  an  or  a  before  the  nouns.  These  two  words  (for  an  and  </ 
are  but  different  forms  of  the  same  word)  are  called  Articles. 

181.  The  Articles  are  the  words  the  and  an  or  a,  used 
before  other  words  to  limit  their  meaning. 

182.  The  articles  are  generally  used  before  nouns  with  or  without 

18a  What  is  the  third  part  of  speech  ?  What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  the 
apple,  the  book  7  When  we  eay  an  apple,  a  hook  ?  From  what  does  this  difference 
of  meaning  result  f    18L  What  are  the  Articles  t    182.  Before  what  are  the  arti- 


CLA88IFI0AT10N    OF    AKilCU'IS.  73 

ft  word  or  words  between ;  as,  the  rose,  a  rose,  the  wild  rose,  an  insignifi- 
cant  ra«o,  a  red  and  white  rose.  In  all  these  expressions,  the  article 
limits  the  meaning  of  the  noun  roM,  and  is  said  to  relate  to  it. 

183.  An  article  may  also  relate  to, 

A  pronoun ;  as,  the  former ^  the  loiter,  the  one,  the  other. 

An  adjective ;  as,  "  The  softer  it  is,  the  better.^ 

An  adverb ;  as,  "  The  more  we  study,  the  better  we  like  to  study." 

184.  CautioM. — Do  not  confound  the  article  an  with  the  conjunction 
m,  used  by  old  writers  for  if;  as,  "^u  it  be  a  long  part,  I  can't  re- 
jnember  iL" 

Do  not  confound  the  article  a  with  the  preposition  <z,  used  in  such  ex- 
pressions aa  to  ffo  &  hunting,  to  burst  out  a  laughing,  &c. 

185.  Classification  and  Use. — ^The  is  called  the  Defi- 
nite Article.  It  is  used  with  nouns  in  both  numbers, 
and  generally  denotes  a  particular  object  or  objects. 

An,  or  a,  is  called  the  Indefinite  Article.  It  is  used  with 
nouns  in  the  singular  only,  and  denotes  one  object  but 
no  particular  one. 

186.  Nouns  taken  in  their  widest  sense  are  often  used  without  either 
article ;  as,  "  Day  is  the  time  for  work ;  night,  for  repose." 

187.  The  definite  article  used  with  the  names  of  animals,  plants,  trees, 
&c.,  in  the  singular,  may  denote  either  one  of  the  kind  or  the  whole  group. 
I  may  say,  "  The  dahlia  you  gave  me  is  dead ;" — meaning  a  particular 
plant :  or,  "  The  dahlia  is  a  native  of  Mexico ;  ^ — ^meaning  the  whole  group 
of  plants  so  called. 

188.  Use  of  an  and  a. — ^Tlie  indefinite  article  has  two 
forms,  an  and  a. 

189.  An  is  used  before  words  commencing  with  a 
vowel  sound ;  as,  an  ant,  an  earl,  an  idol,  an  oak,  an 
umbrella,  an  heir,  an  honor. 

jIm  gvnerftlly  oaod  t  Give  examples.  183.  To  what  bcsideB  a  noun  may  an  article 
:«latet  184.  With  what  must  the  article  an  not  bo  confounded  t  With  what  muat 
Ihe  article  a  not  bo  confounded  t  185.  What  ia  the  called  ?  With  what  \»  it  uhciI  t 
NVhat  doea  it  generally  denote  f  What  ia  an  or  a  called  t  With  what  is  it  uaed  t 
What   doea  It   denote  t     188.  When  are  noons   used  without   either  article  t 

187.  'VMiat  may  the,  used  before  the  names  of  animals,  itc.,  in  the  singular,  denote  I 

188.  Mention  the  forms  of  the  indefinite  article.  180.  Where  mast  on  be  twedt 
Show  the  difference  betwoen  eommenoiog  with  a  vowel  and  commencing  With  a 

4 


74  PAESmG   OF   AETTCLES. 

Observe  that  a  word  may  commence  with  a  consonant  and  yet  with  a 
vowel  sound  ;  as  in  the  last  two  examples,  in  which  h  is  silent. 

190.  A  is  used  before  words  coramencing  with  a  con- 
sonant sound ;  as,  a  bird,  a  cat,  a  sea,  a  hen,  a  wonder, 
many  a  one,  a  yew,  a  ewe,  a  unit,  a  eulogy,  a  humor. 

W  and  y,  beginning  words,  are  consonants.  A  must  therefore  be  used 
before  words  commencing  with  these  letters  or  their  sound,  as  in  the  last 
seven  examples. 

Words  beginning  with  h  sounded,  take  a.  Those  beginning  with  A 
silent,  may  commence  with  a  vowel  sound  and  take  an,  as  an  herb  ;  or  with 
a  consonant  sound  and  take  a,  as  a  humor.  Either  an  or  a  may  be  used 
before  words  commencing  with  h  that  are  not  accented  on  the  first  syllable ; 
as,  an  histo'rian  or  a  histo'rian. 

191.  The  articles  have  neither  person,  number,  gen- 
der, nor  case. 

192.  Rule  IX. — An  article  relates  to  the  word  whose 
meaning  it  limits. 

193.  Parsing. — The  son  of  a  Jcing, 

The  is  the  definite  article,  and  relates  to  son : — Rule^  An  article  relates 
to  the  word  whose  meaning  it  limits. 

A  is  the  indefinite  article,  and  relates  to  king : — Hule,  An  article,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  the  proper  indefinite  article.,  according  to  §§  189,  190. 
Then  parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  articles: — We  waited  —  hour 
for  the  wagon,  which  at  last  came,  bringing  —  ham,  —  basket  of 
eggs,  —  half-barrel  of  cider,  and  —  well-cooked  joint  of  beef.  — 
ewe,  —  ox,  —  year-old  colt,  and  —  young  calf,  were  feeding  in  — 
worn-outfield.  — humorous  account  of — European  tour  made 
by  —  Yankee  in  — ^  one-horse  wagon,  has  had  —  wide  circulation. 
—  heiress  with  such  —  immense  fortune  is  not  met  with  every 
day.  —  honorable  man  and  —  honest  man  are  two  different 
things. 


vowel  sound.  190.  Where  is  a  used  ?  Which  form  must  bo  used  before  words 
beginning  with  w  and  y  ?  Which  form,  before  words  beginning  with  h  ?  Which 
form,  before  words  beginning  with  h,  not  accented  on  the  first  syllable  ?  191.  What 
properties  do  not  belong  to  the  articles  f  192.  Recite  Rule  IX.  193.  Learn  the 
parsing  form. 


ADJECnVi..-    A...>    THKIE   CLASSES.  ii) 

LESSON  XXXII. 

ADJECTIVES    AND    THKIII    CLASSES. 

191.  TuE  Adjective. — ^Tlie  fourth  pai*t  of  speech  is 
the  Adjective. 

"  Those  four  noisy  English  boys  are  here.'* 
The  words  those,  four,  noisy,  and  English,  are  here  all  joined  to  the 
noun  boys.     Those  and  English  tell  which  boys  are  meant ;  four  tells  how 
many  boys ;  noisy  tells  what  kind  of  boys.     Words  like  these,  joined  to  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  to  qualify  or  limit  its  meaning,  are  called  Adjectires. 

195.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit 
the  meaning  of  a  substantive ;  as,  sweet  roses,  happy 
thou. 

196.  The  substantive  to  which  an  adjective  relates,  b  often  understood; 
•s  when  we  speak  of  the  good,  the  living,  meaning  good  men,  living  per- 
sons.    So,  "  There  are  worse  things  than  [for  a  wan]  to  be  poor.^^ 

197.  A  word  generally  used  as  a  noun  becomes  an  adjective  when  it  is 
joined  to  a  substantive  to  qualify  or  limit  its  meaning ;  as,  an  iron  mask, 
a  rose  color,  a  night  attack,  London  porter. 

198.  Classes. — Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes  ;  Proper,  Numeral,  Pronominal,  and  Common. 

199.  A  Proper  Adjective  is  one  derived  from  a  proper 
noun,  or  identical  with  a  proper  noun  in  form  ;  as,  a 
Roman  nose,  Ciceronian  eloquence,  Byron  collars,  a 
Philadelphia  lawyer. 

200.  Caution. — Proper  Adjectives  must  be  distinguished  from  proper 
nouns  having  the  same  form.  Observe  the  difference  in  tlie  following  ex- 
amples : — 

Proper  Adjectives. — Irish  melodies;  Welsh  flannel;  Rttssian  isinglaaa. 
I • 

1M.  What  Is  tho  fonrth  part  of  tpeeoh  I  In  the  sentence  Tlioae  /our  noity 
Englith  boyn  are  here,  what  words  are  joinod  to  the  noun  hoya  7  What  do  they  re- 
sp<>ctiv«'ly  tell  ?  What  are  words  like  these,  joined  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  called  f 
195.  ^Mlat  is  nn  Ailjcctivet  100.  Give  examples  to  show  that  on  adjective  may 
ntato  to  a  Rutxitiintlve  understood.  197.  When  does  a  word  generally  omkI  m  a 
noon  become  an  adjective  f  188.  Into  how  many  classes  may  adjeetive*  be  divided* 
Name  them.    100.  What  i*  a  Proper  Adjective  t    20O.  From  what  nast  proper 


76  NUMEfiALS. PRONOMINAL   ADJECTIVES. 

Proper  Nouns. — Can  you  speak  Iruh?  The  WeUh  are  a  thrifty 
people.  A  Russian;  the  Russians;  a  Russian''s  revenge. — A  plural  or 
possessive  form,  as  in  the  last  two  examples,  indicates  a  noun. 

201.  A  Numeral  Adjective  is  one  that  denotes  a  defi- 
nite number ;  as,  three,  third,  three-fold. 

202.  The  Numeral  Adjectives  are  distinguished  aa 
Cardinals,  Ordinals,  and  Multiplicatives. 

The  Cardinals  answer  the  question  how  many  ;  as, 
one,  two,  three,  four,  thirteen,  twenty-one,  two  hundred. 

The  Ordinals  answer  tlie  question  which  in  order  ; 
2^^,  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  thirteenth,  twentyfirst, 
two-hundredth. 

The  Multiplicatives  answer  the  question  how  many 
fold ;  as,  single,  double  or  two-fold,  triple  or  three-fold, 
quadruple  or  four-fold,  twentyfold,  hundredfold. 

203.  Caution. — The  numerals  must  be  distinguished  from  nouns  having 
the  same  form,  as  used  in  the  following  sentences : — "  Here  is  a  ten{vcxeQjx- 
\ng  2i  ten-dollar  hiliy^  "They  came  hj  fifties  Siud  hu7idreds.^^  "Divide 
fifty-three  by  one/owr/A."     "  It  produced  a  hundred-fold.^ 

204.  The  Pronominal  Adjectives  are  words  identical  in 
form  with  certain  pronouns,  but  used  with  nouns  and 
not  -m  stead  of  them. 

The  pronominal  adjectives  are  which,  what,  which- 
ever, whichsoever,  whatever,  whatsoever,  this,  that,  these, 
those,  former,  latter,  both,  same,  each,  every,  either, 
neither,  one,  none,  other,  another,  some,  all,  any,  such. 

The  adjective  pronouns  all  become  pronominal  adjectives,  when  used 
with  their  nouns.  Thus: — Tliis  man,  that  field,  loth  eyes,  the  same  party, 
other  countries,  such  persons.  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none.  Which  thing 
ifl  an  allegory.    What  thoughts  are  these  ? 

adjectives  be  distinguished  ?  Give  examples  showing  the  difference.  What  does 
•  plural  or  possessive  form  indicate?  20L  What  is  a  Numeral  Adjective? 
202.  What  three  classes  are  embraced  under  Numerals  ?  WTiat  question  do  the 
Cardinals  answer?  The  Ordinals?  The  Multiplicatives?  203.  From  what  must 
the  numerals  be  distinguished  ?  204.  What  are  the  Pronominal  Adjectives  ?  Name 
i»ie  pronominals.    Under  what  circumstances  do  all  the  adjective  pronouns  become 


«.  t  ».\1-Ml  I.N      AlMHJ 


7T 


205.  Tlie  Common  Adjectives  are  all  those  not  em- 
braced in  the  above  classes.  A  common  adjective  may 
express, 

1.  Qu;ility;  as,  tricked,  /laiulfome,  iJle^  red-hot,  evcr-to-be-remembered. 

2.  Quantity  ;  a»,  mtick  labor,  money  enough,  a  vhole  month. 

8.  Material ;  as,  a  gold  crown,  a  golden  crown,  voooden  buckets. 

4.  Time;  aa,  daily,  vxeklii,  annual,  subsequent,  everlasting. 

6.  Situation ;  as,  the  tibove  rule,  the  of  horse,  the  under  side. 

6.  Direction  ;  as,  a  west  wind,  the  hotneward  ionmey. 

1.  An  indefinite  number ;  as,  several,  sundry,  few,  many^  numerous. 

8.  Negation;  as,  '^  There  is  no  music  in  his  soul." 

EXEBCISE. 

Supply  adjectives  of  the  classes  indicated: — Alexander  tbe  Great 
was  a  (common)  general ;  he  invaded  (common)  lands,  subdued 
(eommon)  nations,  took  (common)  cities,  was  successful  in  (pro- 
nominal) battle,  and  added  mucli  to  (proper)  glory. — (Pronominal) 
boys  are  so  (common)  that  tliey  can  not  tell  how  much  (cardinal) 
times  eleven  is. — The  United  States  has  had  two  (common)  and 
(common)  wars  with  the  (proper)  nation ;  during  the  (ordinal)^ 
Madison  was  president. — Darkness  and  tempest  make  a  (multipli- 
cative) mght— (Proper)  politeness  is  famous  the  world  over. 


LESSON   XXXIII. 

COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES. 

**  The  country  is  pleasant  in  spring,  pleasanter  in  summer,  but  pleasantesi 
in  autumn." 
206.  Here  we  are  told  that  the  quality  of  pleasantness  belongs  to  the 
country  in  diflerent  dcgrcoa  at  different  times.  These  different  decrees 
are  implied  in  the  words  pleasant,  pleasanler,  pleasantesi.  By  varjring 
the  form  of  an  adjective,  therefore,  we  may  make  it  express  in  different 
degrees  the  quality  which  it  denotes. 

pronominal  adjectival    206.  What  are  tho  <' '"'»■•    \<1je«tlvc«t    State  what  a 

ooaimon  adjective  may  expn>M,  and  rIvc  ex  i  !i  caa<'. 

206.  lU'poat  the  aentenee  given  at  tho  «■  tit  of  thia  Icaaon.    What 

■re  we  here  told  f    In  what  worda  are  tbeae  dilfvraui  dctf  roea  impUod  f    By  varylnf 


78  COMPAfilSON. 

207.  Comparison. —  Adjectives  are  not  declined. 
But  some,  principally  the  common  adjectives,  are  com- 
pared^ — that  is,  varied  in  form,  to  express  difterent 
degrees  of  the  quality  they  denote :  as,  few^  fewe7\ 
feioest  y  witty ^  wittier^  wittiest. 

208.  Degrees  of  Comparison. — Tliere  are  three  de- 
grees expressed  by  different  forms  of  the  adjective. 
Tliey  are  called  Degrees  of  Comparison,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished as  the  Positive,  the  Comparative,  and  the 
Superlative. 

Tlie  Positive  is  the  degree  expressed  by  an  adjective 
in  its  primitive  form  ;  as,  "  He  is  wise  and  happy. '''^ 

The  Comparative  is  a  higher  degree  than  some  other 
or  others  with  which  it  is  compared  ;  as,  "  He  is  wiser 
and  happier  than  I  or  thou."  "  He  is  wiser  and  hap- 
pier than  he  was."     "  He  is  wiser  than  he  is  happy." 

The  Superlative  is  the  highest  degree  of  all  that  are 
compared ;  as,  "  He  is  the  wisest  and  happiest  of  us  all." 

209.  Formation  of  the  Degrees. — The  Comparative 
Degree  is  formed  by  annexing  er,  and  the  Superlative 
by  annexing  est,  to  the  Positive ;  as, 

Pos.        Pleasant,  Rude,  Holy,  Wet, 

Comp.     pleasanter,         rud-er,  hoh'er,  wetter, 

Sup.        pleasantest.        rud-est.         holiest.  wettest 

In  annexing  er  and  esty  omit  final  c,  change  final  y  to  «',  or  double 

the  final  consonant,  if  it  is  required  by  the  rules  of  spelling.     See  the  last 

three  examples. 

210.  Many  adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  compared, 

the  form  of  an  adjective,  then,  -what  may  we  make  it  express  ?  207.  What  do  wo 
mean  when  we  say  that  adjectives  are  compared  1  208.  How  many  degrees  are 
expressed  by  different  forms  of  the  adjective  ?  WTiat  are  they  called  ?  How  arc 
they  distinguished  ?  What  is  the  Positive  ?  WTiat  is  the  Comparative  ?  What  is 
the  Superlative?  209.  How  are  the  comparative  and  the  superlative  degree 
formed?  Give  examples.  In  some  cases,  what  changes  have  to  be  made? 
210.   What   adjectives   are    compared?      What    adjectives   are    not   compared? 


0OMPASI8ON.  79 

and  some  of  two  syllables ;  but  none  of  more  than  two. 
We  use  quicker^  quickest  ;  prettier,  prettiest :  but  not 
pecLcefaler,  peacefulest  /  gloriouser,  gloriousest. 

211.  Some  adjectives  have  a  meaning  that  does  not 
admit  of  different  degrees ;  hence  they  can  not  be  con> 
pared.  This  is  the  case  with  proi)er  and  numeral  adjec- 
tives, with  most  of  the  pronominals,  and  with  such 
common  adjectives  as  chief  countless,  infinite,  golden, 
enovAjh,  daily,  no,  &c. 

212.  In  stead  of  annexing  ir  and  eat  to  the  primitive  form  of  the  adjec- 
tive^ we  may  express  the  same  ideas  by  prefixing  to  it  the  adverbs  more 
and  mo^;  as,  quick,  more  quick,  most  quick.  These  forms  are  more 
common  than  tliose  in  er  and  est,  when  the  adjective  consists  of  two  syl- 
lables, and  are  altogether  used  when  it  has  more  than  two.  In  the  case  of 
monosyllables,  however,  the  forms  in  er  and  est  are  preferred.  Thus, 
more  pleasant,  most  pleasant,  are  more  frequently  used  than  pleasanter, 
pleasantest ;  but  shorter,  shortest,  are  preferred  to  more  short,  most  short. 

213.  Other  adverbs  besides  more  and  most  may  be  joined  to  adjectives, 
to  express  different  degrees;  such  as,  less  and  least,  very,  exceedingly, 
surpassingly,  &c.  An  adjective,  however,  does  not  become  comparative 
or  superlative  by  having  any  of  these  adverbs  joined  to  it,  but  only  when 
er  or  est  is  added,  or  its  form  is  otherwise  altered. 

214.  Rule  X. — An  adjective  relates  to  the  substan- 
tive whose  meaning  it  qualifies  or  limits. 

To  find  this  substantive,  a  question  may  be  asked  with  who  or  what. 
Thus: — "The  elephant  is  the  largest  of  beasts."  Question.  The  largest 
what  of  beasts?  Atuvoer.  The  largest  beast  of  beasts.  Largest  relates  to 
beast  understood. 

215.  Parsing. — ^To  parse  an  adjective,  state  its  class ; 
if  it  can  be  compared,  compare  it  and  mention  its  de- 
gree ;  tell  what  it  relates  to,  and  repeat  Rule  X. 

211.  What  prevent«  some  adjective*  from  being  compared  f  212.  Beaidea  annexing 
er  and  e«/,  what  other  mode  is  there  of  cxpretiKinK  the  nroe  Ideas  f  In  what  ad- 
jectives is  the  use  of  more  and  mott  more  froquent  ?  In  what  adjective*  are  er  and 
est  preferred  t  213.  Mention  B<ime  other  adverbs  that  may  be  Joined  to  adjectives 
to  express  different  degree*.  When  alone  is  an  adjective  said  to  be  coinpare«l  f 
Z14.  Kceite  Role  X.  How  ean  yon  find  the  substantive  to  which  an  a4}«ctive  rv 
UU-s  I    216.  IIow  la  an  adjective  paned  t    Learn  the  fomifi. 


80  PAESmO   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

JuTie  roses  are  the  sweetest  and  most  'beautiful  of 
flowers, 

June  is  a  proper  adjective,  and  relates  to  roses : — Eule^  An  adjective 
relates  to  the  substantive  whose  meaning  it  qualifies  or  limits. 

Sweetest  is  a  common  adjective ;  sweet,  sweeter,  sweetest ;  in  the  super- 
lative degree,  and  relates  to  flowers  imderstood : — JRule,  An  adjective,  &a 

Most  is  an  adverb. 

Beautiful  is  a  common  adjective,  and  relates  io flowers  understood:— 
Rule,  An  adjective,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  articles,  and  adjectives: — Of  the  five 
senses,  sight  and  hearing  are  the  most  useful  and  necessary  to 
man. — There  arc  no  brighter  tints  or  lovelier  contrasts  than  an 
Italian  sunset  affords. — The  smartest  child  sometimes  makes  the 
dullest  man. — Mezzofanti,  one  of  the  most  industrious  of  men  and 
greatest  of  linguists,  was  master  of  one  hundred  and  fourteen 
languages. — A  merrier  party  than  this  of  ours,  flying  over  snow- 
inantled  fields  and  ice-bound  brooks,  can  not  be  imagined. 


LESSON  XXXIY. 

IRREGULAR    COMPARISON. 

216.  Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly  :-— 

Pos.  Comp.  Sup.  Pos.       Comp.       Sup. 


Bad,  evil,  ill,  worse. 

worst. 

Many, 

more. 

most. 

Good,               better, 

best. 

Much, 

more. 

most. 

Little,              less,  lesser, 

least. 

Near, 

nearer, 

nearest,  next 

21Y.  Less  is  the  common  comparative  of  little,  and  means  either  not  so 
^jreat  or  not  so  much ;  as,  a  less  effort,  less  virtue.  Lesser  is  sometimes 
used  in  poetry,  less  frequently  in  prose,  but  always  with  the  meaning  of 
not  so  great ;  as  the  lesser  light  (that  is,  the  moon),  the  lesser  virtues, 
the  lesser  graces. 

216.  Compare  bad;  good;  little;  many;  much;  near.  217.  What  is  the  com- 
mon comparative  of  Utile!    What  does  it  mean?    What  other  form  is  xisedl 


ADJECTIVES   OOMPABED   IKKEGUULKLY.  81 

218.  The  following  take  both  a  regular  and  ar.  irreg- 
ular form : — 

Po».  Ccmp.  Sup.  Pan.  Ocmp.  Sup. 

{  Uter,  lat^^      I      ^,^  {   older.  oldest, 

^       i  latter,  UsL         \  '         (   elder,  eldest 

219.  Later  and  latest  are  used  with  reference  to  time  ;  latter^  to  order; 
lasty  to  either.  We  say,  Later  arrivals ;  the  latest  tidings ;  the  latter  cir- 
cumstance ;  the  last  day ;  the  last  in  the  line. 

220.  Older  and  oldest  are  the  cooimon  forms,  and  may  always  be  used ; 
but,  when  members  of  the  same  family  are  spoken  of,  elder  is  preferred  to 
older  unless  t/ian  follows,  and  eldesi  to  oldest.  We  say,  An  older  monu- 
ment ;  the  oldest  wine ;  an  older  brother  than  I ;  an  elder  brother ;  the 
eldest  of  the  children. 

221.  The  following  adjectives  make  a  superlative 
in  most : — 

Pos.  Comp.  Sup. 

Far,  farther,  farthest,  farmost,  farthermost^ 

Fore,  former,  foremost,  fii-st. 

Hind,  hinder,  hindmost,  hindormost. 

Low,  lower,  lowest,  lowermost. 

222.  Tlie  following  have  no  adjective  positive,  being 
formed  for  the  most  part  from  adverbs : — 

Adv.  Comp.  Sup. 

(Aft)  After,  aftmost,  aftermost 

(Forth)  Further,  furthest,  furthermost 


(In)  Inner,  inmost,  innermost 

(    Outer,  outmost,  outermost 

(   Utter,  utmost,  utternoost 


(Out) 


(Up)  Upper,  upmost,  uppermost 

Hither,  hitljormost 

Nether,  nethermost 

223.  The  following  have  no  comparative  : — 

What  U  lu  meaning  I  S1&  Compare  taU.  210.  To  what  do  later  and  lateat  refer  f 
To  what,  ^r<r  and  tatit  Sao.  Compare  obi.  Which  are  tho  common  fomml 
When  are  etder  and  M*»t  preferred f  221.  Cumpnre  far ;  /ore;  hind;  low. 
229.  From  what  do  aome  adjective*  in  the  comparative  and  superlative  eomet 
Whateome  fhmi  <{/)7  /A»r/*7 /n7  Oull  Vpl  Comifaro  hither ;  nether.  223.  Com- 
pare iotttm  ;  from ;  rear ;  under  ;  north  ;  northern.    What  other*  are  oompai«d 

4* 


82 


COMPARISON   OF   COMPOUND   ADJECl'IVES. 


Sup. 

Pos. 

Sup. 

bottommost. 

Top, 

topmost. 

endmost. 

Under, 

undermost. 

frontmost. 

North, 

northmost. 

headmost. 

Northern, 

northernmost. 

rearmost. 

South, 

southmost,  &c. 

Fas. 

Bottom, 

End, 

Front, 

Head, 

Rear, 

224.  The  comparatives  superior  and  inferior,  anterior  and  posterior, 
prior  and  ulterior,  junior  and  senior,  major  and  minor,  taken  without 
change  from  the  Latin  language,  have  neither  positive  nor  superlative.  In 
stead  of  being  followed  by  the  conjunction  than,  like  other  comparatives, 
the  first  five  take  the  preposition  to,  the  last  five  take  neither  than  nor  to. 
Thus ; — Superior  to  what  I  expected  ;  posterior  to  Milton ;  prior  to  the 
Deluge ;  ulterior  designs ;  Adam  Jones,  junior ;  a  senior  partner ;  the 
major  part. 

225.  A  few  compound  adjectives  are  compared  by 
varying  their  first  element ;  as, 

Pos.  Comp.  Sup. 

Good-natured,  better-natured,  best-natured. 

Ill-tempered,  worse-tempered,  worst-tempered. 

Bright-eyed,  brighter-eyed,  brightest-eyed. 

226.  Caution.- — Comparatives  and  superlatives  must 
not  be  further  compared ;  nor  should  the  adverbs  m&r6 
and  most  be  used  with  them.  Avoid,  therefore,  such 
expressions  as  worser^  fartherest,  more  fairer^  Tnore 
inferior^  most  highest^  most  straitest,  &c. 


EXERCISE. 

Compare  tender;  dull;  warm-hearted;  noble;  soft;  near; 
narrow;  south-western;  late;  evil;  junior ;  long-headed ;  sweet; 
rear;  pretty;  eastern;  good-tempered;  bad-hearted;  fit;  much; 
outer ;  jolly ;  strong-minded. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  articles,  and  adjectives: — The  more 


like  north,  northern?  224.  Mention  some  comparatives  taken  without  change 
from  the  Latin.  In  what  degrees  are  they  not  found  ?  Which  are  followed  by  the 
preposition  to  ?  Which  take  neither  than  nor  to  7  225.  How  are  a  few  compound 
adjectives  compared  ?  Give  examples.  226.  What  caution  is  given  In  connection 
with  comparatives  and  Buperlativea  ?  What  expressions  must  therefore  be 
livoided  t 


WRITTEN    EXERCISE.  06 

haate^  the  less  speed.— The  first  shall  be  last— The  wisest  and 
best  men  sometimes  miike  the  worst  mistakes. — The  uppermost 
thought  in  my  mind  was  of  my  eldest  sister. — I  never  saw  an 
uglier  or  worse-tempered  horse  than  that. — The  hindmost  man  and 
the  frontmost  were  a  mile  apart. — A  prior*  engagement  prevented 
me  from  calling  on  our  junior  partner. 


LESSON    XXXV. 

A    WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Write  the  plural  of  alley ;  ally ;  sirocco ;  stitch ;  hemistich 
[pronounced  hem'-U-tik]  ;  topaz ;  Jehu ;  lasso ;  punctilio ;  pen- 
knife ;  wharf;  dormouse ;  penman  ;  washerwoman  ;  head ;  hose ; 
chintz ;  summons ;  barn-yard  ;  roomful ;  beau ;  sarcophagus ;  en- 
comium.— Of  each  of  theae  plurals^  tell  whetJier  it  is  a  nwnosyllahle^ 
diMt/llabUiy  trisyllable^  or  polysyllable,  andwhich  syllable  is  accented. 

Write  the  correlative  {masculine  or  feminine,  as  the  case  may  be) 
of  tailoress ;  marchioness;  infanta;  benefactor;  Theodora;  Hen- 
rietta ;  Victoria  ;  lady ;  hart ;  school-mistress ;  Irishman  ;  male- 
servant  ;  husband ;  priest ;  nephew. — In  the  correlatives  thus 
written,  point  out  the  proper  and  the  improper  diphthongs. 

Write  the  possessive  singular  and  the  possessive  plural  o/lynx  ; 
volley;  mercy;  solilo<iuy;  delay;  major-domo;  deer;  dwarf; 
salmon;  alderman ;  talisman ;  I ;  thou ;  she;  myself;  one;  other; 
another ;  who ;  which  ;  whosoever. — Divide  these  possessives  into 
their  syllal/Us. 

Prefx  the  proper  form  of  the  indefnite  article  to  art ;  bushel ; 
cape  ;  dress ;  eddy ;  ewer  ;^ulogistic  discourse  ;  frown  ;  girl ; 
hiss  ; — humble  prayer ; — high  tower ; — honorable  place  ; — hopeful 
son;  heir;  ill ;  jest ;  keg;  lamb;  meal;  net;  owl; — once  mighty 
empire;  pail;  queen;  rock;  seal;  town;  urn;  unicorn;  vase; 
world  ; — weighty  secret ;  xebec ;  yacht ;  zone.  ^ 

Prefix  an  appropriate  common  adjective  to  waiters;  clocks; 
•team-boats ;  paintings ;  teachers ;  cities ;  sheep ;  fields ;  carriages ; 
carpets;  oaks. 

*  PhrM  thai  :— fVtor  is  •  eontmon  Adjcottre,  In  the  oomporatlT*  de^roe ;  pod* 
Aw  and  laperlatiTe  wantlog ;  it  beloogs  to  tngagtmtnt  .'—RuUt  An  s^Jectlve,  *o. 


84  THE   VEEB. THE   SUBJECT. 

LESSON    XXXYI. 

VERBS   AND   THEIR    CLASSES. 

227.  The  Yerb. — The  fifth  part  of  speech  is  the 
Verb. 

Assertions.  Carlo  harks.  Carlo  is  cross. 

Exclamations.    How  Carlo  harks  I  How  Carlo  sleeps  I 

Qtiestions.  Can  Carlo  hark  ?  Has  Carlo  heen  hurt  i 

Commands.  Carlo,  do  not  hark.  Carlo,  eat  your  meat. 
In  each  of  the  above  sentences,  something  is  aflSrmed,  or  said,  about 
Carlo.  In  the  first  line,  we  assert  something  about  him ;  in  the  second, 
we  exclaim  something ;  in  the  third,  we  ask  something ;  in  the  fourth,  we 
command  something.  The  general  term  affirm  is  applied  to  all  four  of 
these  modes  of  speaking.  When  we  affirm.,  therefore,  we  may  assert,  ex- 
claim, ask,  or  command. 

228.  Observe  the  words  in  italics  m  the  eight  sentences  above.  It  is 
these  that  affirm.  Barks,  can  hark,  and  do  hark,  affirm  an  action  not 
ejcerted  on  any  person  or  thing.  Is  and  sleep  affirm  states.  Has  heen 
hurt  affirms  an  action  exerted  on  Carlo.  Eat  affirms  an  action  exerted 
on  meat.  Here,  then,  we  have  a  new  class  of  words,  which  affirm.  They 
are  called  Verbs. 

229.  A  Verb  is  a  word  or  words  used  to  afiirm  an 
action  or  a  state. 

A  verb  may  consist  of  several  words ;  as,  has  heen  hurt,  in  the  above 
example. 

230.  The  Subject. — That  about  which  the  action 
or  state  is  affirmed,  is  called  the  Subject  of  the  verb. 

The  noun  Carlo  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  each  of  the  eight  sen- 
tences at  the  commencement  of  the  lesson,  except  the  two  that  express 
commands — Carlo,  do  not  hark,  and  Carlo,  eat  your  meat.  In  these.  Carlo 
is  in  the  nominative  independent,  and  the  pronoun  you  understood  is  the 

227.  What  is  the  fifth  part  of  speech  ?  Repeat  two  assertions  respecting  Carlo ; 
two  exclamations  ;  two  questions  ;  two  commands.  "What  general  term  is  applied 
to  all  four  of  these  modes  of  speaking?  228.  What  words  affirm  in  these  sen' 
tences?  What  are  such  words  called?  229.  What  is  a  Verb?  Of  what  may  a 
verb  consist  ?  230.  What  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  ?  What  is  the  subject  in  the 
first  sis  examples  given  at  the  commencement  of  the  lesson  ?    What,  in  the  other 


TBANSmVE   AND   INTRANSITIVE   VERBS.  85 

subject  of  the  verb— <ib  not  [jfou]  bark,  eat  [you]  your  meat.  We  learn, 
then^  1.  That  the  subject  of  a  verb  may  be  a  noun  or  pronoun.  2.  That 
it  is  sometimes  understood. 

231.  The  subject  of  a  verb  is  easily  found  by  putting  tcho  or  what  be- 
fore it.  A  question  is  thus  asked,  and  whatever  answers  this  question  is 
the  subject.  Thus  :  in  the  sentence  Carlo  barks  because  he  is  hungry,  we 
wish  to  know  the  subjects  of  the  verbs  barks  and  is.  Who  barks  f  An- 
swer, Carlo;  Carlo  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  barks. — Because  tcho  i* 
hungry  f    Answer,  he;  he  \a  the  subject  of  the  verb  is. 

232.  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs.  —  With 
regard  to  their  meaning,  verbs  are  distinguished  as 
Transitive  and  Intransitive. 

A  Transitive  Verb  is  one  that  affirms  an  action  ex- 
erted on  some  person  or  tiling ;  as,  "  Sarah  broke  the 
bottle."  "  Tlie  bottle  is  broken,:'  In  both  of  these 
examples,  the  breaking  is  exerted  on  the  bottle. 

An  Intransitive  Verb  is  one  that  affirms  a  state,  or 
an  action  not  exerted  on  any  person  or  thing ;  as, 
"  Sarah  is  happy."     "  Sarah  wept:'* 

In  these  examples,  is  affirms  a  state ;  wept,  an  action  not  exerted  on  an 
object  If  we  were  told  what  Sarah  wept — "  Sarah  wept  tears  of  sorrow  * 
— wept  would  be  a  transitive  verb. 

283.  It  follows  that  the  same  verb  may  be  transitive  in  one  sentence 
and  intransitive  in  another.  Thus : — He  turned  his  face.  lie  turned. — 
Helen  sings  simple  melodies.  Helen  sings. — I  can  not  see  the  fire.  I  can 
not  see. — Here  the  omission  of  the  object  in  each  case  makes  the  verb  in- 
transitive. 

234.  Caution. — An  intransitive  verb  is  often  followed  hy  for,  tn,  of, 
or  some  other  preposition,  with  its  object ;  as,  "  Beware  of  the  wicked." 
"  Many  frowned  upon  his  efforts."  In  such  cases,  do  not  mistake  the 
verb  for  tranutive ;  the  object  belongs  to  the  preposition  and  not  to  the 
verb. 


twof  What  do  we  leam,  tb«D,  retpeoting  the  subject  of  a  verbt  231.  How  may 
tbesabjeetof  avarblMftMUMlt  Give  example*.  232.  With  regard  to  their  mean- 
log,  bow  ere  verba  dieUngaiahed  I  Define  a  Transitive  Verb.  Define  an  Intnuv 
•itive  Verb.  nS.  What  follows  with  respect  to  the  same  verb  in  difTerent  sen- 
teneest  834.  In  what  oases  ia  there  danger  of  misUking  an  intransitive  verb  fol 
traoaltive  t    lo  sooh  eonatnioUoaa,  to  what  does  the  object  belong  f 


86  VOICE. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  'certs  (remembering  that  a  verb  sometimes  consists 
of  several  words) ;  state  whether  they  are  trarmtive  or  intransitive  ; 
mention  the  subject  of  each,  and,  when  the  verb  is  transitive,  its 
object : — Nimrod  founded  Babylon. — Steam  weaves,  knits,  ploughs, 
grinds,  saws,  and  saves  man  labor  in  a  thousand  ways. — Sleep 
on  now,  and  take  your  rest. — How  many  does  intemperance 
ruin ! — Will  not  a  wise  government  establish  schools,  found  col- 
leges, and  foster  education  ? 

CfBsar  gained  a  complete  victory,  and  sent  this  message  to  the 
senate  :  "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered !  " — The  lion  skulks  from 
man  in  the  day-time;  but  he  becomes  bold  at  night,  prowls 
around  watch-fires,  and  often  carries  off  human  victims. 


LESSON  XXXYII. 

VOICE. 

235.  Look  at  the  following  sentences,  wliicli  express 
exactly  the  same  idea  : — 

Ca?sar  invaded  Britain. 

Britain  was  invaded  by  Csesar. 
In  the  first  sentence,  the  subject  of  the  transitive  verb  invaded  is 
Ccenar,  the  iame  of  the  person  acting.  Britain,  the  name  of  the  thing 
acted  upon,  is  the  object  of  the  verb,  and  therefore  in  the  objective  case. — 
In  the  second  sentence,  Britain  is  the  subject  of  the  transitive  verb  was 
invaded,  and  the  former  subject  Ccesar  is  now  in  the  objective  case,  the 
object  of  the  preposition  by.  The  subject  of  a  transitive  verb  may  there- 
fore denote  that  wliich  acts  or  that  which  is  acted  upon,  according  to  the 
form  of  the  verb. 

236.  Voice  is  that  property  of  transitive  verbs  which 
distinguishes  their  subjects  as  acting  or  acted  upon. 

237.  Tliere  are  two  voices,  the  Active  and  the 
Passive. 

235.  Repeat  the  two  sentences  presented  at  the  commencement  of  the  lesson. 
How  do  the  ideas  they  express,  compare?  State  the  different  relations  in  which 
the  nouns  Ccbsar  and  Britain  stfrnd  in  these  sentences.  What,  then,  may  the  sub- 
ject of  a  transitive  verb  denote  ?    236.  What  is  Voice  ?    237.  How  many  voices 


ACnVK  AND   PASSIVE   VOICE.  87 

"Wlien  its  subject  denotes  that  wliich  acts,  a  transi- 
tive verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Active  Yoice ;  as,  "  Caesar 
invailed  Britain." 

When  its  subject  denotes  that  which  is  acted  upon, 
a  transitive  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Passive  Voice  ;  as, 
■'  Britain  was  invaded  by  Caesar." 

238.  An  intransitive  verb  has  no  voice.  Its  subject 
always  denotes  that  which  acts  or  is  in  a  certain  state. 
The  form  of  an  intransitive  verb  corresponds  with  that 
of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice. 

239.  We  sometimes  meet  with  an  intransitive  verb  and  a  preposition 
following  it  used  as  a  compound  transitive  verb,  and  as  such  thrown  into 
the  passive  form.  Thus : — "  This  event  was  looked  forJ^  *'  The  awkward 
are  laughed  eU."  Here  in  parsing  we  must  take  looked  /or,  laughed  at, 
together,  and  call  them  transitive  verbs  in  the  passive  voice. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  terhs  ;  itate  whether  they  are  transitive  or  intranH- 
tite,  and  if  tramitive  mention  their  voice.  Parse  the  nouns  and 
pronouns : — The  patriot  will  struggle,  bleed,  and  die,  for  his  na- 
tive land. — Linseed  oil,  which  is  much  used  in  the  arts,  is  ex- 
pressed from  the  seeds  of  flax. — Athens  was  founded  by  Cecrops, 
who  led  thither  a  colony  from  Egypt. — Those  who  have  once  been 
imposed  upon,  are  apt  to  be  suspicious. 

Supply  intransitive  terbs.  Point  out  the  svhject  of  each  : — 
Roses— sweet.  Hemp — in  Kentucky.  Tea — from  China.  Liv- 
ingston— in  Africa,  The  Hungarians — against  the  Austrians. 
Victoria — over  England.     Cornwallis — at  Yorktown. 

Supjfly  transitive  verbs.  Point  out  the  subject  and  the  object  of 
each: — Wolves — many  sheep.  Caravans — the  Great  Desert.  As- 
tronomers closely — the  heavens  at  night,  and  sometimes — oomets. 
Enjrland— a  powerful  navy.  The  Turks — coffee.  Travellers — 
many  strange  things.     Cornwallis — his  array  at  Yorktown. 

arc  there  f  Nuine  them.  When  is  «  verb  taid  to  be  in  the  nctive  voice  f  When, 
In  the  pamlve  voice  f  238.  What  verba  have  no  voice  t  What  dooa  the  aabject  of 
an  Intranaltlve  verb  alwajr*  denote  f  With  what  dooa  ita  forrn  correspond t 
00.  Show  hnw  an  liitrmnaiUve  verb  followed  by  a  prepoaltion  is  Bometimea  thrown 
Into  the  paaalve  form. 


88         THE  PEOPERTIES  OF  VERBS. — MOOD. 

LESSON  XXXVIII. 

PROPERTIES  OF  VE  RBS.  — MOOD.  — TENSE. 

240.  Properties  of  "Verbs. — Look  at  the  sentence, 
^  I  love  peace." 

Observe  four  things  about  the  verb  love  in  this  sentence  : — 

1.  It  affirms  in  a  positive  manner.  Not  I  may  love^  or  I  can  love ;  but 
I  love. 

2.  It  affirms  that  the  act  is  going  on  at  the  present  time.  Not  I  did 
love  yesterday,  or  I  shall  love  to-morrow,  but  I  love  now. 

3.  It  affirms  about  the  speaker.  Not  you  love,  or  he  loves;  but  /,  the 
person  speaking,  love. 

4.  It  affirms  about  one  person.  Not  we  love,  or  many  love ;  but  /,  one 
person,  love. — Hence  we  see  that 

Verbs  have  four  properties  ;  viz., 
1.  Mood,  which  distinguishes  the  manner  of   the 
affirmation. 
"  2.  Tense,  which  distinguishes  its  time. 

3.  Person,which  distinguishes  the  affirmation  as  made 
about  the  speaker,  that  which  is  spoken  to,  or  that  which 
is  spoken  of. 

4.  Number,  which  distinguishes  the  affirmation  as 
made  about  one  or  more  than  one. 

241.  Mood. — Mood  is  that  property  of  the  verb  which 
distinguishes  the  manner  in  which  it  affirms. 

An  action  or  state  may  be  affirmed  positively.     "  I  depart.^ 

An  action  or  state  may  be  affirmed  contingently^ — that  is,  as  possible. 
*''' 1  may  depart."" 

An  action  or  state  may  be  affirmed  conditionally, — that  is,  as  a  condi- 
tion.    "  If  I  depart,  he  shall  remain." 

An  action  or  state  may  be  affirmed  imperatively, — that  is,  as  a  com- 
mand.    "  Depart  this  instant." 

240.  In  the  sentence  "  /  love  peace,''^  what  four  things  are  to  he  observed  about 
the  verb  love  7  How  many  properties  have  verbs  ?  Name  them,  and  tell  what 
oach  distinguishes.  241.  What  is  Mood  ?  Mention  and  illustrate  the  five  ways  In 
which  we  may  affirm  an  action  or  state.    Hence  there  are  how  many  moods  i 


MOOD   AND  TEN8B.  89 

An  action  or  state  may  be  affirmed  urditniUdl;/, — that  is,  without  being 
fimitcd  to  any  subject.     **  I  desire  to  depart^ — Hence 

There  are  five  ways  in  which  we  may  affirm  an  action 
or  state,  and  therefore  there  are  five  moods.  They  are 
called  the  Indicative,  the  Potential,  the  Subjunctive, 
tlie  Imperative,  and  the  Infinitive. 

242.  A  verb  in  the  indicative,  potential,  subjunctive, 
or  imperative  mood,  is  limited  to  a  subject,  and  is  there- 
fore called  Finite. 

243.  Tense. — ^Tense  is  that  property  of  the  verb 
which  distinguishes  the  time  of  what  it  affirms. 

An  action  may  be  affirmed  as  taking  place,  or  a  state  as  existing,  at  the 
present  time.     *'  I  depart^ 

An  action  may  be  affirmed  as  having  taken  place,  or  a  state  as  having 
existed,  at  some  past  time.     '*  I  departed.'* 

A  past  action  or  state  may  be  affirmed  as  completed  at  the  present 
time.     "  I  have  departed.^ 

A  past  action  or  state  may  be  affirmed  as  completed  at  or  before  some 
other  past  time  mentioned.     "  I  had  departed  before  my  father  arrived." 

An  action  may  be  affirmed  as  about  to  take  place,  or  a  state  as  about 
to  exist.     "  I  shall  depart.'" 

A  future  action  or  state  may  be  affirmed  as  about  to  be  completed  at 
or  before  some  other  future  time  mentioned.  "  I  ihall  have  departed  by 
Christmas." — Ilence 

There  are  six  varieties  of  time,  and  therefore  six 
tenses.  They  are  called  the  Present,  the  Imperfect, 
the  Perfect,  the  Pluperfect,  the  First  Future,  and  the 
Second  Future. 

244.  The  grand  divisions  of  time  are  three  in  number ;  the  Present, 
the  Part,  and  the  Future.  The  present  tense  belongs  to  the  first ;  the  im- 
perfect, perfect,  and  pluperfect,  to  the  second;  the  first  future  and  second 
future,  to  the  third. 

Whnt  RTo  iheycallvdf  242.  In  what  mood*  U  n  verb  limited  to  •  f abject t  What 
is  a  verb  in  any  of  these  moods  cilied  t  243.  What  is  Tenie  t  Mention  and  illus- 
trate the  six  varieties  of  time  at  which  an  action  may  be  represented  as  taking 
ylaee,  or  a  ftato  as  existing.  n«i)co  thi-re  are  how  many  tenseo  f  WTiat  are  they 
called  t  M4.  Name  the  three  frrand  divisions  of  time.  Which  of  the  tenses  bo* 
loocs  to  the  flnt  of  lh«!M  I    Wbloh  of  Lbe  t«tiae«  are  put  I    Whieh  are  future  t 


90  THE   INDICATIVE   MOOD. 


EXERCISE. 

Form  five  sentences  with  different  moods  of  the  verb  pray,  in 
which  the  action  will  he  affirmed,  1.  Positively  ;  2.  Contingently; 

3.  Conditionally  ;  4:.  Imperatively;^.  Unlimitedly.  For  examples 
see  the  paragraphs  in  Jine  print  §  241. 

Form  six  sentences  with  different  tenses  of  the  verb  pray,  in  whicf 
the  action  will  he  affirmed^  1.  As  tahing  place  now ;  2.  As  having 
taken  place  yesterday  ;  3.  As  just  completed  at  the  present  time  ; 

4.  As  completed  before  some  other  past  action  ;  5.  As  about  to  take 
place  to-morrow  ;  6.  As  to  be  completed  before  some  other  future 
action.    For  examples  see  §  243. 


LESSON   XXXIX. 

THE    INDICATIVE    MOOD    AND    ITS    TENSES. 

245.  Tlie  Indicative  Mood  is  used  cliiefly  for  asserting 
positively  and  asking  questions ;  also  for  expressing  a 
condition  or  supposition. 

Positive  Assertion. — ^I  see  the  prince. 

Question. — Po  you  see  the  prince  ? 

Condition. — If  he  will  go^  I  will  remain. 

Supposition. — If  I  had  been  wise,  I  would  have  remained. 

246.  All  six  tenses  are  found  in  the  indicative  mood. 

247.  Indicative  Present. — ^This  tense  denotes, 

1.  Present  time  simply  ;  as,  "  I  aslc,'''^ 

2.  Present  time  used  for  the  past,  to  bring  what  is 
affirmed  more  vividly  before  the  eye ;  as,  "  Napoleon 
at  once  crosses  the  river,  engages  the  enemy,  and  gainB 
a  complete  victory." 

3.  Present  time  used  for  the  future  ;  as,  "  "When  the 
war  ends^  prosperity  will  return." 

248.  Signs. — None  in  the  simple  form. — I  ash. 

245.  For  what  is  the  Indicative  Mood  chiefly  used  ?  246.  Name  Us  tenseB. 
247.  What  does  the  present  iudicative  denote,  as  regards  time?    248.  What  aigu 


TKN8lv8   OF   TUB   INDICATIVE.  91 

JDo  in  the  negative,  emphatic,  and  interrogative  form. — You  do  not  <uk 
my  pardon.     I  do  ask  it     Do  you  a^k  it  ? 

Am  in  the  progressive  form,  to  denote  the  continuance  of  an  action 
or  state  in  an  emphatic  manner. — I  am  asking. 

Am  in  the  pajisive  voice. — I  am  asked. 

249.  Indicative  Imperfect. — This  tense  denotes, 

1.  Past  time  simply  ;  as,  "  I  asked.^^ 

2.  An  action  or  state  habitual  in  past  time ;  as^ 
"  Napoleon  took  snuff," — that  is,  was  in  the  habit  of 
taking  it. 

250.  Signs. — None  in  the  simple  form. — I  asked. 

Did  in  the  negative,  emphatic,  and  interrogative  form. — You  did  not 
ask  my  pardon.     I  did  ask  it.     Did  you  ask  it  ? 

If  o-t  in  the  progressive  form  and  the  passive  voice. — I  toaa  asking. 
was  asked. 

251.  Indicative  Perfect. — ^This  tense  denotes, 

1.  The  time  of  a  past  action  or  state  completed  at  the 
present ;  as,  "  I  have  dined.^^ 

2.  The  time  of  a  past  action  or  state  continued  to  the 
present ;  as,  "  I  have  been  loohing  for  you  every  day." 

3.  The  time  of  a  past  action  or  state  connected  with 
the  present  by  consequences  or  results  still  existing ;  as, 
'*  Virgil  ha>s  written  some  noble  verses." 

4.  After  when^  till,  before,  after,  &c.,  it  is  used  in 
the  sense  of  the  second  future.  It  then  denotes  the 
time  of  a  future  action  or  state  which  will  be  completed 
at  or  before  some  other  future  time  mentioned  ;  as,  "  I 
will  remain  till  I  have  seen  my  father." 

252.  Siox. — Have. — I  have  asked.  I  have  been  asking.  I  have  been 
a-'^kfd. 

hM  It  in  the  simple  form  ?  What,  in  the  negative,  emphatic,  and  Interrogative 
form  I  What,  in  the  pnigreMive  form »  Whnt,  in  the  pamive  voice  I  249.  What 
doe«  the  imperfeot  Indloatlvo  denote  t  250.  What  sign  baa  It  In  the  simple  formt 
What,  In  the  negative,  empltatic,  aud  interrogative  form  t  What,  in  the  progre— 
Ito  form  and  the  paaalve  voice  t  251.  IIow  many  varieties  of  time  doe*  the  per> 
feet  indicative  denote  f  What  is  the  llrst  of  theee  f  What  is  the  second  f  What 
U  the  thirdf    What  is  the  fourth  f    852.  What  ia  the  sign  of  the  perfaet  indiott 


92  TENSES   OF  THE   INDICATIVE. 

253.  Indicative  Plupeefect. — This  tense  denotes  tlie 
time  of  a  past  action  or  state  completed  at  or  before 
some  other  past  time  mentioned ;  as,  "  Yii-gil  had 
sta/rted  before  the  emperor  arrived." 

254.  Sign. — Had. — ^I  had  asked.  I  had  hem  asking.  I  had  beet 
asked. 

255.  Indicative  First  Future. — This  tense  denotes, 

1.  Future  time  simply;  as,  "  We  shall  all  die.''^ 

2.  Determination  with  respect  to  a  future  action  or 
state ;  as,  "  You  shall  not  go.^^ 

256.  Signs. — Shall,  mil. — I  shall  ask,  I  toiU  ask. — I  shall  be  asking^ 
I  toill  be  asking.     I  shall  be  asked,  I  iPill  be  asked.  > 

257.  Indicative  Second  Future. — ^This  tense  denotes 
the  time  of  a  future  action  or  state  which  wilL  be  com- 
pleted at  or  before  some  other  future  time  mentioned ; 
as,  "  I  shall  have  dined  by  the  time  jou  arrive." 

258.  Signs. — Shall  have,  will  have. — I  shall  have  asked^  I  will  have 
asked.  I  shall  have  been  asking,  I  will  have  been  asking.  I  shall  have 
been  asked,  I  will  have  been  asked. 

259.  Interrogative  Forms. — All  the  tenses  of  the 
indicative  mood  may  be  used  interrogatively, — that  is, 
to  ask  a  question.  In  the  interrogative  forms  of  the 
tenses,  the  position  of  the  subject  is  changed.    Thus : — 


Pres. — Do  you  ask  ? 
Imperf. — Did  you  ask  ? 
Perf. — Have  you  asked? 


Plu. — Had  you  asked  ? 
1st  Fu. — Will  you  ask? 
2nd  Fu. — ^Will  you  have  asked? 


EXERCISE. 

Select  the  'oerbs  ;  tell  whether  they  are  transitive  or  intransitive  ; 
^tate  their  voice  (if  they  are  transitive),  their  mood,  and  tense : — 
Cuvier  tliinks  it  probable  that  whales  sometimes  live  a  thousand 

tive?  253.  What  does  the  pluperfect  indicative  denote?  254  What  is  the  sign 
of  this  tense?  256.  What  does  the  first  future  indicative  denote?  266.  Mention 
its  signs  ?  267.  What  does  the  second  future  indicative  denote  ?  268.  Mention  its 
signs.  259.  How  may  all  the  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood  he  used?  Give  th<i 
Interrogative  forme  of  the  several  tenses. 


TUB   POTENTIAL   MOOD.  03 

jrears. — Do  riches  make  the  man  ? — We  have  just  seen  Lonis  Phil- 
ippe, who  was  driven  from  the  throne  of  France. — The  English 
had  settled  Virginia  before  the  Puritans  reached  Massachusetts. 
—Truth  will  prevail. — Shall  falsehood  triumph? — The  Persia  will 
have  arrived  by  Christmas. — Had  you  heard  of  the  death  of  Hum- 
boldt?—Am  I  wrong?— Did  Milton  sell  "Paradise  Lost"  for  five 
guineas? 


LESSON   XL. 

THE    POTENTIAL   MOOD   AND   ITS   TENSES. 

260.  The  Potential  Mood  is  used  for  affirming  an 
action  or  state  either  absolutely  or  as  a  condition  or 
supposition. 

261.  Four  tenses  are  found  in  the  potential  mood. 
They  have  the  same  names  as  the  first  four  tenses  of  the 
indicative,  hut  may  convey  different  ideas  as  regards 
time.  Tlie  two  futures  are  wanting  in  tlie  potential, 
future  time  being  often  denoted  by  the  present  and  the 
imperfect. 

262.  Potential  Present. — Tlie  present  tense  of  the 
potential  mood  affirms  permission,  possibility,  desire, 
ability,  or  necessity,  with  respect  to  what  is  either 
present  or  future. 

Present.  Futtre. 

PsRif  issiOK. — You  may  play  now.  You  may  play  next  week. 

PossiBiLiTT. — I  may  be  wrong.  I  may  start  this  CTcning. 
Desire. — Oh  !  may  she  now  be  happy !     3fay  you  die  happy  ! 

Ability. — You  certainly  can  see.  You  can  see  Venus  to-night 

Necessity. — I  must  start  at  once.  I  must  start  to-morrow. 

{Xegative.)  I  need  not  start  now.  I  rued  not  start  to-morrow. 

960.  What  la  the  PotentlAl  Mood  lucd  for  affirming  1  261.  How  many  teoaea 
ftro  found  In  the  potential  moud  t  Name  them.  What  two  tenses  are  wanting  in 
thia  mood  t  By  what  tenaea  U  future  time  ortcn  denoted!  262.  What  dooe  the 
praaaot  !«•••  of  the  poteottal  mood  affirm  f    Give  example*  In  which  ])«rmiiMluo 


94  TENSES   OF   THE   POTENTIAL. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  other  words  in  the  sentence  determine  whethei 
present  or  future  time  is  denoted  by  the  verb. 

263.  Signs. — May^  can,  must^  need. 

264.  Potential  Impekfect. — ^The  imperfect  potential 
is  used  as  a  leading  verb  to  affirm, 

1.  Present  possibility,  on  condition  of  something,  the  opposite  of  which, 
it  is  implied,  is  really  the  case ;  as,  "  I  might  think  you  honest,  if  you 
would  admit  my  claim," — implying  that  you  do  not  admit  it. 

2.  Ability  with  respect  to  what  is  past ;  as,  "I  could  not  find  it  ye«5- 
terday." 

3.  Detennination  with  respect  to  what  is  either  past,  present,  or  future ; 
as,  "  He  would  not  start  yesterday."  "  He  would  not  start  this  moment,  if 
he  could."     "  He  would  not  start  to-morrow,  were  it  possible." 

4.  Obligation  with  respect  to  what  is  either  present  or  future ;  as,  "  He 
should  write  home  at  once,  to-morrow." 

265.  The  imperfect  potential  is  used  in  a  dependent 
clause,  connected  with  a  leading  verb  in  the  imperfect 
tense,  to  affirm  permission,  possibility,  ability,  determi- 
nation, or  obligation,  with  respect  to  what  is  either 
past,  present,  or  future. 

Permission. — He  said  that  I  might  play  yesterday,  now,  to-morrow. 
Possibility. — You  said  you  might  arrive  yesterday,  to-day,  to-morrow. 
Ability. — He  said  that  he  could  not  meet  me  yesterday,  now,  to-morrow. 
Determination. — I  said  that  I  would  go  yesterday,  now,  to-morrow. 
Obligation. — I  said  that  you  should  write  yesterday,  now,  to-morrow. 
266.  Signs. — Mighty  could,  would,  should. 

267.  Potential  Perfect. — ^The  perfect  tense  of  the 
potential  mood  affirms  possibility,  conviction,  or  neces- 
sity, with  reference  to  a  past  action  or  state  completed 
at  the  present  time. 

le  affirmed  ;  possibility ;  desire  ;  ability ;  necessity.  How  is  it  determined  whether 
present  or  future  time  is  denoted !  263.  What  are  the  signs  of  the  present  poten 
tial  ?  264.  What  four  ideas  may  be  convej-ed  by  a  leading  verb  in  the  imperfect 
potential  ?  265.  What  does  a  verb  in  the  imperfect  potential,  in  a  dependent  clauae, 
affirm  ?  Give  an  example  in  which  permission  is  affirmed ;  possibility  ;  ability  ; 
determination  ;  obligation.  266.  What  are  the  signs  of  the  imperfect  potential  ? 
267.  What  does  the  perfect  potential  affirm?  What  is  the  sign  of  the  perfect  po- 
tential when  possibility  is  expressed  X    What  is  the  sign  in  the  interrogative  form, 


TEN8K8   OF   THE   POTENTIAL.  05 

Sioire.  (PoalWlitT.)  May  Aow.— He  may  have  dined,--that  is,  It  Is  poaaible. 

(Possibility,  interrogative  form.)  Can  have. — Can  he  have  dined? — 
that  is,  is  it  possible  ? 

(Possibility,  negative  form.)  Can  have. — He  can  not  have  dined, — 
that  is,  it  is  not  possible. 

(Possibility,  negative  interrogative  form.)  May  have. — May  he  not 
have  dined  ? — that  is,  is  it  not  possible  ? 

(Conviction.)  Must  have. — He  must  have  gone, — that  is,  I  am  con- 
vinced that  he  has. 

(Necessity.)  Nted  have. — Need  he  have  gone?  He  need  not  have 
gone.     That  is,  was  it  necessary  ?    It  was  not  necessary, 

268.  Potential  Pluperfect. — Tlie  pluperfect  tense 
of  the  potential  mood  affirms  possibility,  ability,  deter- 
mination, willingness,  or  obligation,  with  reference  to  a 
past  action  or  state  completed  at  some  past  time. 

810K8.  (Possibility.)  Might  have. — I  might  have  saved  his  life. 
(Ability.)  Could  have. — I  could  have  saved  his  life. 
(Willingness.)   Would  have. — I  would  have  died  to  save  his  life. 
(Obligation.)  Should  have. — You  should  have  tried  to  save  his  life. 

269.  Interrogative  Forms. — All  the  tenses  of  the 
potential  mood  may  be  used  interrogatively.    Thus  : — 

Present.— May  I  ask  ?    Can  I  ask  ?    Must  I  ask  ?    Need  I  ask  ? 
Imperfect.— Wif^ht  I  ask  ?    Could  I  ask  ?   Would  I  ask  ?    Should  I  ask  ? 
Perfect.'— iisLj  I  not  have  a.<?ked?     Can  I  have  asked?     Must  I  have 

asked  ?    Need  I  have  asked  ? 
Pluperfect. — Might  I  have  asked?    Could  I  have  asked?    Would  I 

have  asked  ?    Should  I  have  asked  ? 

EXERCISE. 

SeUct  the  terhs  ;  tell  tcliether  they  are  trantitite  or  intramitite ; 

ttats  their  voice  {if  they  are  trarmtive),  their  mood  and  tense^  and 

ithat  each  affirms.     [Thus : — Napoleon  could  not  remain  at  rest 

Could  remain  is  an  intransitive  verb,  in  the  potential  mood,  im- 

wben  poMlbllity  it  exprewedt  In  the  netrntive  form  f  In  the  nei?«tlve  Intorroitm- 
tJve  form  f  What  is  the  lAga  when  conviction  is  expreiwed  »  When  neccMtty  l« 
wtpre— cd  f  208.  What  doe*  the  pluperfect  potcnli.il  affirm  »  What  in  the  sisrn 
when  poealbllttylt  cxpremcd  f  When  ablHtj  la  expresucdf  wmingno««f  obllgfa. 
tion  f  980.  How  may  all  the  tenae*  of  the  potential  mood  be  aacd  t  Glre  the  !» 
Cerrogative  fonna  of  the  lereral  tenaea. 


96  THE   SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

perfect  tense,  and  aflSrms  ability  with  respect  to  what  is  past.] 
We  must  start  at  once,  for  it  may  snow. — No  man  need  despair. — 
Many  boys  could  learn,  if  they  would  study. — Wellington  feared 
that  the  enemy  might  fall  on  his  rear. — Can  we  have  mistaken 
the  way  ?    We  must  have  done  so. 

Washington  might  have  made  himself  king. — Caesar  should 
have  paused  at  the  Rubicon. — Possibly  he  may  have  done  so. — 
Can  this  be  true? — Ye  would  not  come  to  me  that  ye  might 
have  life. — Cleopatra  need  not  have  fled. 


LESSON  XLI. 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  AND  IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

270.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  is  used  chiefly  for  ex- 
pressing a  condition  or  supposition  ;  as,  "  Unless  thou 
go^  I  will  not  stay."  "  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I 
love  him." 

271.  This  mood  is  called  Siebjunctive^  because  it  is  used  in  a  clause 
subjoined  to  the  leading  part  of  a  sentence.  Thus,  in  the  first  example 
given  above,  the  clause  unless  thou  go  is  subjoined  to  the  leading  part  of 
the  sentence  /  tcill  not  stay,  to  express  the  condition  of  my  staying ;  and 
the  verb  go  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood. 

272.  The  subjoined  clause  is  generally  connected  with  the  rest  of  the 
Bcntence  by  if,  that,  though,  although,  lest,  unless,  or  whether.  These  con- 
nectives are  called  Conjunctions. 

273.  Sometimes  the  conjunction  is  omitted;  as,  "See  \that'\  thou 
do  it." 

Even  when  a  conjunction  is  used,  it  is  not  always  a  sign  of  the  sub- 
junctive mood.  The  indicative  or  potential  may  follow  in  the  subjoined 
clause ;  as,  "  See  that  he  does  it  well." 

274.  The  subjunctive  mood  has  but  two  tenses,  the 
Present  and  the  Imperfect. 

270.  What  is  the  subjunctive  mood  chiefly  used  to  express  ?  271.  Why  is  this 
mood  called  subjunctive  1  Illustrate  this.  272.  How  is  the  subjoined  clause  gen- 
erally connected  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence?  What  are  these  connectives 
called?  273.  What  do  we  sometimes  find  respecting  the  conjunction?  What 
moods,  besides  the  subjunctive,  may  follow  a  conjunction  I    274.  Name  the  tenseb 


TENSES  OF  THB  SUBJUNCTIVE.  97 

275.  SuBJUNCTTivE  Present. — This  tense  is  nsed, 

1.  To  affirm  a  condition  or  supposition  connected 
with  some  future  action  or  state ;  as,  "  K  he  promise^ 
he  will  perform."  But,  in  such  cases,  the  uidicative  is 
now  more  frequently  used :  "  If  he  promises^  he  will 
perform." 

2.  It  is  used  after  a  conjunction  following  a  verb 
that  commands,  to  express  the  action  or  state  com- 
manded or  forbidden ;  as,  "  Take  care  that  thou  re- 
viainy     "  Beware  lest  thou  *^^l." 

Also  in  similar  constructions  after  it  is  necessary,  it  is  desirable,  kc. ; 
AS,  "  It  is  necessary  that  these  rules  be  observed."^  In  such  cases,  the  indicar 
tive — "  It  is  necessary  that  these  rules  are  observed^ — would  be  wrong. 

276.  Signs. — In  the  active  voice,  usually  none,  rarely  do. — "  If  he 
but  touch  the  hills,"  or  "  If  he  cfo  but  touch  the  hills,  they  will  smoke." 

In  the  passive  voice,  be. — If  I  be  loved, 

277.  Subjunctive  Imperfect. — ^Tlie  imperfect  tense 
of  the  subjunctive  mood  expresses  a  wish  or  supposi- 
tion, and  implies  that  the  opposite  of  the  thing  wished 
or  supposed  is  really  the  case.     Thus  : — 

Wish. — Oh  that  he  were  innocent  (implying  that  he  is  not)  I 
Supposition. — If  I  were  now  as  strong  as  I  was  a  year  ago,  I  would  be- 
l^n  the  work  at  once  (implying  that  I  am  not  so  strong). 

278.  If  the  imperfect  indicative  is  u.sed  in  such  suppositions,  in  stead 
of  the  ImpKjrfect  subjunctive,  it  implies  that  the  thing  supposed  Is  really 
the  case ;  as,  "  If  I  wis  a  spy,  I  still  had  rights." — When  the  form  of  the 
verb  does  not  show  whether  it  is  in  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive, 
it  is  necessary  in  parsing  to  apply  tliis  test.  If  the  thing  supposed  is 
really  the  caae,  the  verb  is  In  the  indicative;  if  not,  in  the  subjunctive. 

of  th«  inbjanetlve  mood.  275.  What  t«  the  present  Bahjanctive  used  to  aiBmil 
What  la  more  fivquently  ased  in  aach  oaseaf  Under  what  clrcnmBtancea  ia  th« 
praaant  labjunctlve  oaed  after  a  conjuactionf  In  what  similar  constructions  is  It 
also  employed  t  278.  What  is  the  sign  of  the  present  subjunctive  in  the  active 
voleef  In  the  passive f  277.  What  does  the  imperfect  subjunctive  express  1 
What  does  it  always  imply  t  Give  examples.  278.  If  the  imperfect  indicative  ia 
uaed  in  such  suppositions,  what  does  it  Imply  f    How  are  you  to  tell  the  mood  in 

6 


98  THE  IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

2*79.  Signs. — In  the  active  voice,  usually  none,  rarely  did. — If  I  asked, 
if  I  did  ask  (implying  that  I  did  not). 

In  the  passive  voice,  were. — If  I  were  asked  (implying  that  I  am  not). 

280.  The  Imperative  Mood  has  only  one  tense,  called 
the  Present.  It  expresses  a  command,  an  entreaty,  an 
exhortation,  or  permission,  with  reference  either  to 
present  or  future  time. 

Command. — Bo  not  talk  (either  now  or  hereafter). 
Entreaty. — Do  not  weep^  or  weep  not. 
Exhortation. — Bo  not  .sm,  or  sin  not. 
Permission. — Stay  till  Monday,  if  you  wish. 

281.  Signs. — ^In  the  active  voice,  either  none  at  all  or  do. — Ask^  or  do 
ask. 

In  the  passive  voice,  be. — Be  asked. 

282.  The  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mood  is  generally  under- 
stood. TTiou  or  you  understood  is  the  subject  in  each  of  the  examples  just 
given : — Do  not  thoic  or  you  talk,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  verds;  tell  whether  they  are  transitive  or  intransitive ; 
mention  their  voice  (if  they  are  transitive)^  their  mood.,  and  tense:— 
If  lie  be  mad,  I  will  eschew  his  company.— Though  thou  fall  into 
tjin,  He  will  lift  thee  up. — Take  care  lest  thy  temper  betray  thee. 
— Whether  thou  be  guilty  or  not,  I  will  not  leave  thee. — If  thou 
do  but  wink,  he  will  espy  it. — Respect  yourself,  and  others  will 
respect  you.— Plough  deep,  while  others  sleep. — If  I  were  a  beg- 
gar, I  would  still  be  an  honest  one. — What  right  had  he  to  insult 
her,  if  she  was  a  beggar  ? 

If  you  are  wise,  pause  for  a  moment,  and  give  up  a  course 
that  can  lead  only  to  ruin. — Oh  that  men  did  but  know  the 
sweets  of  innocence ! — If  I  were  asked  where  nature  assumes  the 
strangest  forms,  I  should  say  in  Australia. — Rest  assured  that 
nothing  has  been  created  without  some  wise  purpose. — If  Caesar 
was  ambitious,  he  was  at  the  same  time  magnanimous. 


parsing?  279.  What  ie  the  sign  of  the  imperfect  subjunctive  in  the  active  voice? 
In  the  passive  ?  280.  How  many  tenses  has  the  imperative  mood  ?  What  does  it 
express?  281.  WTiat  is  the  sign  of  the  imperative  in  the  active  voice?  In  tho 
passive  ?    282.  How  may  the  imperative  mood  generally  be  known  ? 


THE   INFINITIVE  MOOD.  \fy 

LESSON   XLII. 

THE  INFINITIVE  M00D.-PER80N  AND  NUMBER  OP    VERB* 

283.  Tlie  Infinitive  Mood  expresses  an  action  or  state 
not  limited  to  a  subject. 

It  has  two  tenses,  called  the  Present  and  the  Perfect. 

284.  Infinitive  Present. — ^This  tense  expresses  an 
uncompleted  action  or  state  not  limited  to  a  subject. 
It  may  be  used  in  connection  with  what  is  past,  present, 
or  future ;  as,  "  I  longed  to  see  Ireland."  "  I  long  to  see 
Ireland."    "  I  shall  go  to  see  Ireland." 

285.  Sign. — Generally,  to. — To  ask;  to  he  asking;  to  be  asked. — But 
after  certain  verbs  to  ia  omitted ;  as,  *'  He  bade  me  [to]  ask.^* 

286.  Infinftive  Perfect. — ^This  tense  expresses  a 
completed  action  or  state  not  limited  to  a  subject.  It 
may  be  used  in  connection  with  past  or  present  time  ; 
as,  "  The  Phoenicians  were  thought  to  have  settled  Ire- 
land." "Washington  is  said  to  have  been  high-tempered." 

287.  Sign. — To  have. — To  have  asked;  to  have  been  asking;  to  have 
been  asked 

288.  Neither  the  subjunctive,  the  imperative,  nor  the 
infinitive,  can  be  used  interrogatively. 

289.  Person  and  Number  of  Verbs. — Every  finite 
verb  has  Person  and  Number.  Tliese  correspond  with 
the  same  properties  in  nouns! 

290.  Person. — A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  First  Per- 
son, when  it  aflSrins  of  a  person  or  persons  speaking ; 

9L  What  does  tb«  Infinitive  Mood  ezpreMt  Name  ita  tensea.  284.  Wli.it  ia 
mpreaaed  by  the  preacnl  infinitive  !  885.  What  la  (fenerally  the  aijm  of  the  prcnenl 
Infinltlvef  28&  What  la  expreaaed  by  the  perfect  Infinitive!  With  what  tinio 
may  It  be  used  in  cocnectlon  f  287.  What  la  the  aifrn  of  the  perfect  infinitive  t  28& 
What  mooda  can  not  be  oaed  Interrogatively  ?  280.  What  propertiea  haa  every 
finite  TWt>t  With  what  do  the  person  and  nambor  of  verba  oorreapoodl  Ml 
Wbcik  la  •  verb  aaid  to  be  In  the  flrat  person  t    When,  In  the  second f    When,  Id 


100  PERSON    AND   NUMBER   OF    VERBS. 

in  the  Second  Person,  when  it  affirms  of  an  object  or 
objects  spoken  to ;  in  the  Third  Person,  when  it  affirms 
of  an  object  or  objects  spoken  of. 

Numher,' — A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Singular  Num- 
ber, when  it  affirms  of  one  person  or  thing;  in  the 
Phiral,  when  it  affirms  of  more  than  one. 

The  person  and  number  of  a  verb,  therefore,  depend 
on  the  person  and  number  of  its  subject.     Hence 

291.  KcLE  XI. — A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in 
person  and  number. 

I  pray; — ^the  verb  joray  is  1st,  sing.,  because  its  subject  /is  1st,  sing. 

Thou  prayest ; — prayest  is  2d,  sing.,  because  its  subject  thou  is  2d,  si. 

He  prays ; — prays  is  3rd,  sing.,  because  its  subject  he  is  3rd,  sing. 

We  pray ; — pray  is  1st,  plural,  because  its  subject  we  is  1st,  plural. 

You  pray ; — pray  is  2nd,  plural,  because  its  subject  you  is  2nd,  plural. 

Tliey  pray ; — pray  is  3rd,  plural,  because  its  subject  they  is  3rd,  plural 

In  the  second  and  third  person  singular,  given  above,  the  verb  shows 
its  person  and  number  by  its  form, — prayest^  prays.  In  the  other  four 
parts  the  form  is  the  same,  and  the  person  and  number  of  the  verb  can  be 
told  only  by  finding  those  of  its  subject. 

292.  Rule  XI.  does  not  apply  to  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood,  for  they 
have  no  subject. 

293.  Usages  of  the  Infinitive. — A  verb  in  the  infini- 
tive may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb  ;  as, 
"  To  die  for  one's  country  is  glorious."  The  infinitive 
to  die  is  the  subject  of  the  finite  verb  is. 

294.  A  verb  in  the  infinitive  may  also  be  used  to 
limit  the  meaning  of  some  other  word. 

1.  Of  a  noun ;  as,  "  It  is  my  duty  to  go^ 

2.  Of  a  pronoun ;  as,  "For  me  to  go  would  be  wrong." 

the  third?  When  is  a  verb  said  to  be  in  the  singularnumber?  When,  in  the 
plural  ?  On  what  do  the  person  and  number  of  a  verb  depend  ?  291.  Recite  Rule 
XI.  Give  examples  of  the  rule.  In  which  of  these  examples  does  the  verb  show 
its  person  and  number  by  its  form  ?  How  are  its  person  and  number  to  be  told  in 
the  other  parts ?  292.  To  what  verbs  does  Rule  XI.  not  apply?  293.  What  is  th© 
first  usage  of  the  infinitive  mood  ?  294.  For  what  else  may  a  verb  in  the  infinitive 
b«  used  ?    Name  the  parts  of  speech  that  the  infinitive  may  limit,  and  give  an 


UBAOES  OF  TUE    INFINinVE.  101 

8.  Of  an  adjective ;  aa,  "  It  is  hard  to  go."* 

4.  Of  a  verf) ;  aa,  **  I  wish  to  go." 

6.  Of  an  adverb ;  as,  "  I  have  walked  enough  to  tire  tne  out** 

6.  Of  a  preposition ;  as,  **  I  am  about  to  go.^ 

7.  Of  a  conjunction;  as,  "  Are  you  so  foolish  ab  to  go?'" 

205.  Finally,  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  may  be  used 
independently, — that  is,  without  limiting  or  relating  to 
any  other  word ;  as,  "  To  speak  plainly,  I  think  you  are 
dishonest." 

296.  Rule  XII. — A  verb  in  the  infinitive  is  used  as 
a  subject,  or  limits  the  meaning  of  some  other  word,  or 
stands  independently  in  the  sentence. 

297.  Paksino. — To  parse  a  verb,  state  its  class,  voice 
(if  transitive),  mood,  and  tense ;  if  finite,  its  person  and 
number,  what  it  agrees  with,  and  Rule  XL ;  if  in  the 
infinitive,  what  verb  it  is  the  subject  of,  or  what  it 
limits,  and  Rule  XII.    Thus  : — 

Tlioufjh  labor  may  he  Jiard,  to  do  nothing  is  still 
harder. 

Kay  be  is  an  intransitive  verb,  in  the  potential  mood,  present  tense, 
third  person,  sinj^ular  number,  and  agrees  with  its  subject  labor : — Bule^  A 
verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 

To  do  is  a  transitive  verb,  in  the  active  voice,  infinitive  mood,  present 
tense,  the  subject  of  the  verb  w : — RuU^  A  verb  in  the  infinitive  is  used  as 
a  subject,  or  limits  the  meaning  of  some  other  word,  or  stands  independ- 
ently in  the  sentence. 

Is  is  an  intransitive  verb,  in  the  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  third 
person,  singular  number,  and  agrees  with  the  infinitive  to  do  for  its  sub> 
ject : — Rule,  A  verb  agrees,  kc 

The  Hebrews  are  thought  to  have  invented  letters. 

Are  thonght  is  a  transitive  vert),  in  the  pasrive  voice,  indicative  mood, 
pn^ont  tense,  tliird  person,  plural  number,  and  agrees  with  its  subject  I/e- 
brnct : — JiuU^  A  verb  agrees,  &c. 

To  haye  inrented  is  a  tranative  verb,  in  the  active  voice,  infinitive  mood. 


rxnmple  of  enrh.    SM.  Finally,  bow  may  a  v«rb  in  tbe  inflnitivc  be  naedt 
Recite  Rule  ZIL    S87.  How  U  •  verb  to  be  parMdt    Lemn  the  paniof 


102  PAIiTICIPLES. 

perfect  tense,  and  limits  the  meaning  of  the  verb  are  thought : — Rule,  A 
verb  in  the  infinitive,  &e. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  articles,  adjectives,  and  verds : — Ed- 
ucation makes  the  man. — Cato  used  to  say,  "  The  Eomans  rule  the 
world,  but  women  rule  the  Eomans." — Those  who  win,  may 
laugh. — The  property  of  a  state  should  educate  its  children. — See 
that  thou  be  not  wise  in  thy  own  conceit. — Gunpowder  may  have 
been  known  to  the  Chinese  centuries  ago. — A  trombone  was  dis- 
covered in  Herculaneum,  where  it  had  lain  nearly  two  thousand 
years  under  the  ashes. — Men  need  not  perish. 


LESSON  XLIII. 

PARTICIPLES. 

298.  To  verbs  belong  participles. 

I  finished  my  meal  and  left  the  table. 

Having  finished  my  meal,  I  left  the  table. 

Observe  the  two  sentences  just  given.     They  convey  the  same  idea,  but 

in  different  forms.     The  one  directly  affirms  that  I  finished  my  meal,  the 

other  assumes  or  implies  it.     In  the  one,  the  action  is  expressed  by  the 

\evh  finished  ;  in  the  other,  by  having  finisJied,  which  we  call  a  Participle. 

299.  A  Participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  that  generally 
qualifies  or  limits  the  meaning  of  a  substantive,  bj  as- 
suming some  action  or  state  in  connection  with  it. 

300.  Tliere  are  three  participles ;  the  Present,  the 
Perfect,  and  the  Compound  Perfect. 

301.  The  Present  Participle  assumes  an  action  or  state 
as  going  on  at  the  time  of  some  other  action  or  state, 
past,  present,  or  future. 

298.  "What  words  are  embraced  among  verbs  ?  Give  the  two  sentences  pre- 
fsented  at  the  commencement  of  the  lesson.  Point  out  the  difference  between 
them.  299.  Denne  a  Participle.  300.  How  many  participles  are  there?  Givo 
their  names.    301.  How  doee  the  present  participle  assume  an  action  or  state? 


In  each  case,  respected  implies 
an  action  completed  at  the  time 
of  his  death. 


PERFECT    PARTICIPLE.  103 

PaMt,^TaJnng  leave  of  jou,  I  departe<l.  ^  !„  each  case,  the  taking  learn 
Prts. — Taking  leave  of  you,  I  depart.  \  is  represented  as  going  on  at  the 
Fut.— Taking  leave  of  you,  I  wUl  depart.  J    'ime  of  the  departing. 

802.  In  the  active  voice,  the  present  participle  ends  in  ing ;  as,  asking, 
running.     In  the  passive  voice,  its  sign  is  being ;  as,  being  asked.  ' 

303.  Tlie  Perfect  Participle  assumes  an  action  or  state 
as  completed  at  the  time  of  some  other  action  or  state, 
past,  present,  or  future. 

Past. — He  died,  respected  by  all. 
Prea. — lie  dies,  respected  by  all. 
Put. — He  will  die,  respected  by  all. 

804.  The  perfect  participle  generally  ends  in  ed,  t,  or  n,  and  has  the 
same  form  in  both  voices.  In  the  active  voice,  it  seldom  if  ever  appears 
alone,  but  is  used  in  forming  the  compound  tenses ;  as,  I  huve  asked,  I 
had  brought,  I  shall  have  fallen.  In  the  passive  voice,  it  is  used  both 
alone  and  in  forming  the  compound  tenses ;  as,  "  lie  died,  loved  and  re- 
tpectedJ"    **  I  am  loved  and  hope  to  be  respected.'" 

305.  Tlie  Componnd  Perfect  Participle  assumes  an  ac- 
tion or  state  as  completed  before  some  other  action  or 
state,  past,  present,  or  future. 

Past. — Having  learned  my  lesson,  I  took  a  walk. 

Pres. — Having  learned  my  lesson,  I  take  a  walk  every  day. 

Put. — After  having  learned  my  lesson  to-morrow,  I  shall  take  a  walk. 

806.  In  the  active  voice,  the  compound  perfect  participle  is  formed  by 
prefixing  having  to  the  perfect  participle;  in  the  passive  voice,  by  prefix- 
ing having  been.—{kci\Ye.)  Having  asked,  having  brought,  tiaving  fallen. 
(Passive.)    Having  been  asked,  having  been  brought. 

307.  To  sum  up,  transitive  verbs  have  three  parti- 
ciples in  the  active  voice,  and  three  in   the  passive. 

Olve  example*.  802.  How  doe«  the  present  participle  end  In  the  sctire  volcif 
What  is  ltd  siRii  in  the  psMlve  voice!  903.  Ilowdoes  the  perfect  participle  AAKume 
•n  action  orKtute?  Give  exnmplen.  304.  How  does  the  perfect  participle  ict>ner- 
ally  end!  For  what  alone  is  it  use<1  in  the  active  voice!  How  is  it  used  in  tho 
pawive!  305.  How  doeii  the  compound  perfect  participle  assume  an  action  or 
•tate!  3001.  Howl*  It  formed  in  the  active  voice!  How,  in  the  piiaaire!  807. 
Sum  np  what  ha<i  been  aaid  on  this  subject.  Give  the  participle*  of  the  vwb  oak 
eive  thoM  ot/aO. 


104  EXERCISE   ON   PARTICIPLES. 

Intransitive  verbs,  having  no  passive  voice,  make  but 
three  participles,  corresponding  in  form  with  those  of 
transitive  verbs  in  the  active  voice. 

Present.  Perfect.  Compound  Perfect. 

»,  ( Act.     Asking,  asked,  having  asked. 

I  Pas.    Being  asked,  asked,  having  been  asked. 

Intbansitite.  Falling,  fallen,  having  fallen. 

EXERCISE. 

Select  and  name  the  participles^  stating  their  voice  when  they 
are  transitive : — Burgoyne  having  surrendered  at  Saratoga,  and 
the  North  being  thus  freed  from  the  fear  of  invasion,  joy  spread 
through  the  land. — By  writing  frequently  and  carefully  correcting 
what  we  have  written,  we  learn  to  write  well. — Having  been 
condemned  to  death,  Socrates  refused  to  save  his  life  by  secretly 
escaping. — ^Hoping  for  the  best,  yet  fearing  the  worst,  Congress, 
though  surrounded  by  difficulties,  took  measures  to  increase  the 
army. 

Tuim  each  rerb  in  italics  into  a  participle^  and,  "by  omitting  the  con-, 
junction  or  subject,  complete  the  sentence  properly  without  altering 
its  meaning.  [Thus  : — Galileo  constructed  a  telescope  for  himself^ 
and  made  many  important  discoveries  in  astronomy. — Changed. 
Having  constructed  a  telescope  for  himself,  Galileo  made,  &c.] 
Do  what  is  right,  and  leave  the  consequences  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves.— Gold,  when  it  is  mixed  with  copper,  becomes  harder. — 
Webster  arose  and  addressed  the  meeting. — Braddock  rejected  the 
advice  of  Washington,  and  fell  into  a  fatal  ambuscade. — ^PorsoD 
had  been  asTced  his  opinion,  but  did  not  commit  himself. — The  In- 
dians of  America  are  thinned  out  by  intemperance  and  disease, 
and  are  daily  becoming  less  numerous. 


LESSON  XLIV. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PARTICIPLES. 

308.  Cautions. — Do  not  confound  a  participle  with 
an  adjective  of  the  same  form.     Both  qualify  or  limit 

308,  "With  what  must  a  participle  not  be  confounded  ?    How  may  adjectives 


CONOTBUCTl'ION    OF    PARTICIPLES.  105 

the  ine&ning  of  substantives ;  but  a  participle  implies 
in  addition  an  action  or  state  going  on  or  completed, 
and  may  govern  an  object  like  a  finite  verb. 

Adjective*. — A  hard-working  man  (one  that  is  in  the  habit  of  working 
haitl) ;  a  travelling  clerk  ;  an  amumng  story ;  an  enlightened  mind. 

Participles. — A  man  working  hard  (on  some  particular  occasion) ;  a 
clerk  travelling  in  Georgia ;  amusing  us  with  a  story ;  a  mind  enlightentd 
by  education. 

309.  Do  not  confound  the  participle  in  ing  with  a 
participial  noun  of  the  same  foi-m.  If  the  word  in 
question  has  an  adjective  joined  to  it,  it  is  a  noun.  K 
it  is  modified  by  an  adverb  or  governs  an  object,  it  is 
a  participle. 

Noun. — Reading  is  taught  in  every  school,  yet  good  readivg  is  rare. 
Part. — The  art  of  reading  well  is  acquired  by  imitating  a  good  teacher. 

310.  Pabticiples  used  independently. — Participles 
generally  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning  of  substantives. 
Sometimes,  however,  they  do  not  relate  to  any  particu- 
lar noun  or  pronoun,  and  then  they  are  said  to  be  used 
independently.  A  participle  used  independently  is 
often  the  object  of  a  preposition. 

"  The  art  of  reading  well  is  all-important."  *'  Generally  speaking^  the 
hardest  workers  are  the  happiest." — Here  the  participles  reading  and 
Mpeaking^  not  relating  to  any  particular  noun  or  pronoun,  are  used  inde- 
pendently.    Beading  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  of. 

311.  Rule  XIII. — Participles  are  used  independent- 
ly, or  relate  to  the  substantives  whose  meaning  they 
qualify  or  limit. 

312.  A  participle,  whether  used  independently ornot,  may  take  a  noun 
or  pronoun  for  its  object     This  noun  or  pronoun  is  in  the  objective  case, 

■ 

and  pnrtictpic*  b«  distlntcuishedt  Give  exnmplos.  309.  How  mny  tbo  participle 
in  invr  l>e  diatinKUithed  from  a  participial  noun  of  the  imrae  form  t  Illuotrate  thia. 
810.  Wlien  ar«  participle*  mid  to  l)C  UM>d  Itidcpeiidently  f  Of  what  is  a  participle 
M>  UBod  ofV«'n  ll.e  object  f  Give  exoroplea.  811.  Recite  Rule  XIII.  812.  In  what 
•aae  la  a  aabatantlve  that  ia  the  object  of  a  participle  f    Aoconling  to  what  rule  t 


106  PAKSESfG   OF   PARTICIPLES. 

according  to  Rule  FV.,  A  substantive  that  is  the  object  of  a  verb  or  prep- 
osition is  in  the  objective  case. — "Leading  his  soldiers  over  the  Alps, 
Hannibal  entered  Italy."  "Leading  soldiers  over  the  Alps  is  no  easy 
matter."  In  each  of  these  sentences,  soldiers  is  in  the  objective  case,  the 
object  of  the  participle  leading. 

313.  KuLE  XIY. — A  substantive  which,  in  stead  of 
being  modified  by  a  participle,  is  made  to  modify  the 
latter,  is  put  in  the  possessive  case. 

*'  I  saw  John  writing."  Here  John  is  the  object  seen.  Hence  the  noun 
John  is  in  the  objective  case.  The  participle  writing  quaUfies  its  meaning, 
and  therefore  relates  to  it.  "I  was  surprised  at  John's  writing  so  well." 
Here  the  writing  so  well  is  the  thing  at  which  I  was  surprised.  The  noun 
is  no  longer  modified  by  the  participle  writing,  but  itself  modifies  the  lat- 
ter by  telling  whose  writing  is  meant.  It  is  therefore,  according  to  Rule 
XTV.,  put  in  the  possessive  case — Johii's. 

314.  Paksing. — The  participle,  its  modifying  sub- 
stantive, and  its  object,  are  parsed  as  follows : — 

Every  thing  depends  on  the  pupiVs  studying  dili- 
gently. 

Pupil's  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  com- 
mon gender,  possessive  case,  and  modifies  the  participle  studying : — Rule, 
A  substantive  which,  in  stead  of  being  modified  by  a  participle,  is  made  to 
modify  the  latter,  is  put  in  the  possessive  case. 

Studjring  is  the  present  participle  active  of  the  intransitive  verb  study, 
used  independently  as  the  object  of  the  preposition  on : — Rule,  Participles 
are  used  independently,  or  relate  to  the  substantives  whose  meaning  they 
quaUfy  or  limit. 

Having  made  a  code  of  laws  for  his  countrymen^ 
Lycurgus  left  Sparta. 

Having  made  is  the  compound  perfect  participle  active  of  the  trana- 
tive  verb  make,  and  relates  to  the  noun  Lycurgus : — Rule,  Participles  are 
used  independently,  &c. 

Code  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  objective 
case,  the  object  of  the  participle  having  made  : — Rule,  A  substantive  that 
is  the  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 

813.  Recite  Rule  XIV.     Show  its  application  in  an  example.     814.  Learn  the 
parsing  forms. 


C50MPOUND  TENSES. — AUXILIARIES.  107 

EXERCISE. 

Parte  the  noune,  pronouns^  adjectives^  and  partieiples : — We  can 
iearn  much  by  simply  observing  and  remembering  what  we  see. — 
Filled  with  remorse  on  account  of  having  betrayed  his  Lord,  Judas 
killed  himself. — Having  been  thrown  into  the  sea,  Jonah  was 
swallowed  by  a  great  tish. — Bayonets  are  so  called  from  having 
been  invented  at  Bayonne,  in  France. — Arnold,  having  matured 
his  plans,  met  Andre  near  the  river,  and  after  arranging  matters 
with  him  returned  to  the  fort. — Disappointed  at  not  having  obtained 
an  interview  with  the  qaeen,  Columbus  was  about  leaving  Spain. 


LESSON  XLV. 

AUXILIARIES. -i3£:,   HAVE. 

315.  Auxiliaries. — Some  tenses  of  the  verb  consist 
of  two  or  more  words ;  as,  have  askedy  shall  have  asked. 
These  are  called  Compound  Tenses. 

Tliey  are  formed  by  joining  words  known  as  Auxil- 
iaries to  some  part  of  the  principal  verb.  Auxiliary 
signifies  aiding  ^  and  these  words  are  so  called  because 
they  aid  in  forming  the  compound  tenses. 

316.  Tlie  auxiliaries  are  he  in  all  its  tenses,  have  in 
certain  tenses,  do^  did^  will,,  shall^  may,  can,  must,  need, 
might,  could,  would,  and  shoidd. 

817.  Parning. — In  parsing,  auxiliaries  must  be  taken  with  their  prin- 
cipal verb,  even  though  other  words  come  between.  "  Sarah  would  not 
have  thus  deceived  me."  Parse  the  words  vpotild  have  deceived  tt^ether,  as 
a  traniiitivc  verb,  in  the  active  voice,  potential  mood,  pluperfect  tenae, 
third  person,  singular  numl^er,  &c. 

818.  When  several  verbs  are  used  in  the  same  construction,  the  aux- 
iiarj  is  generally  expressed  with  the  first  and  understood  with  the  rest ;  as,' 

816.  What  l«  TTieunt  hy  Componnd  Tphbos  t  How  lire  the  eompoand  trnaea 
fo-TTH'-n  Whnt  does  auxiViary  tnran  t  Why  ure  the  nuxiliariea  «>  called  f  818. 
M  '  on  the  MUxnUHM.  317.  In  parsini;,  howmuat  thu  auxiliarie«  bo  takvn  ?  8181 
\s  i.<  (I  oererml  \-«rb«  are  uaed  in  the  tame  construction,  what  la  aaid  of  the  aaxll- 
taryt    On  the  other  band,  what  la  aometlmM  andemtood  t    In  this  oate,  bow  mnat 


108  THE  AUXILIARY  BE. 

"I  am  surprised,  grieved,  and  shocked  at  your  proposal."  To  repeat 
the  auxiliary  [am  grieved,  and  am  shocked]  would  be  inelegant.  But 
grieved  and  shocked  are  to  be  parsed  as  if  am  preceded  each, — that  is,  as  iu 
the  passive  voice,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  && 

On  the  other  hand,  the  principal  verb  is  sometimes  understood,  and  the 
auxiliary  alone  expressed ;  as,  "  May  I  go  ?  You  may."  Here  parse  may 
as  an  auxiliary  used  for  m.ay  go,  an  intransitive  verb,  in  the  potential 
mood,  present  tense,  &c. 

319.  Conjugation. — Bj  the  Conjugation  of  a  verb  is 
meant  the  process  of  carrying  it  through  its  several 
moods,  tenses,  persons,  and  numbers. 

To  distinguish  the  persons  in  conjugating,  we  prefix  the  pronouns  /, 
thou,  he,  in  the  singular ;  we,  you,  they,  in  the  plural.  In  the  subjunctive 
mood,  we  prefix  the  conjunction  if.  These  words  must  be  parsed  separately 
from  the  verb. 

320.  We  shall  now  consider  the  auxiliaries  in  turn. 

321.  Be,  in  its  various  parts,  is  the  common  verb  with 
which  we  affirm  existence  ;  as,  "  Be  happy."  "  I  am 
happy." 

Besides  appearing  as  a  principal  verb,  he  is  used  in 
all  its  parts  as  an  auxiliary. 

Combined  with  the  present  participle  active,  it  makes  the  progressive 
form  of  the  various  tenses  of  the  active  voice ;  as,  I  ain  nding,  I  was  ruling. 
Combined  with  the  perfect  participle  passive,  it  forms  the  passive  tenses ; 
as,  I  am  ruled,  I  toas  ruled. 

The  verb  be  is  conjugated  in  Lesson  XLYIII. 

322.  Have  is  used  both  as  a  principal  verb  and  as  an 
auxiliary.  As  a  principal  verb,  it  is  transitive,  and  may 
be  carried  through  all  the  moods  and  tenses  of  both 
voices.  As  an  auxiliary,  it  is  used  in  the  compound 
perfect  participle,  and  in  six  tenses,  as  follows  : — 

we  parse  the  auxiliarj'  ?  319.  What  is  meant  by  conjugating  a  verb?  How  do  we 
distinguish  the  persons  in  conjugating  ?  In  the  subiunctive  mood,  what  do  we 
prefix  ?  321.  What  do  we  affirm  with  the  verb  be  ?  Besides  appearing  as  a  prin- 
cipal verb,  how  is  be  usedV  What  does  it  form,  when  combined  with  the  present 
participle  active  ?  What,  when  combined  with  the  perfect  participle  passive  ?  322. 
Howie  have  used?    In  what  parts  is  it  used  as  an  auxiliary  ?    Of  what  tense  is 


THE  AUXIUARY  HAVK  109 


Ihdio.  Perf. — Havt. 

Indic.  Plu, — Had. 

Indic.  Sec.  Fu. — Shall  Aaw. 


PoTEN.  Perf. — May  have. 
PoTEN.  Plu. — Might  have. 
Infin.  Perf. — To  have. 


823.  The  lirst  two  of  these  are  conjugated  thus: — 

Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

g-  fl.  Ihave,  We  have,  1.  I  had,  We  had, 

2.  Thou  hadst,  You  had, 

8.  He  had ;  They  had. 

824.  In  solemn  style,  have  makes  hath  in  the  third  singular ;  as,  "  He 
hath  offended  God." 


I  I  2.  Thou  hast.       You  have, 
ft,  [3.  He  has ;  They  have. 


EXEBCISE. 

iM&rt  verba  in  compound  tenses^  and  stats  the  mood  and  tense  of 

each: — The  Spanish  Moors  to  liave  invented  steel  needles. 

The  first  settlers  of  America Behring's  Strait.     Brick-making 

is  said one   of  the  earliest   arts.     The  Chinese  ac- 
quainted with  the  mariner's  compass  before  it io  Europe. 

You that  I  was  nido,  but  I  assure  you  no  offence  was  in- 
tended.    Ilad  he  not  known  how  to  swim,  he  .     In  some 

countries,  forgers for  life.    The  boiler  exploded,  and  many 

passengers . 


LESSON  XL VI. 

THE  AUXILIARIES  DO,  DID,  WILL,  SHALL. 

325.  Do  and  did  are  used  both  as  principal  verbs  and 
as  auxiliaries.  Do  appears  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  pres- 
ent tense  of  the  indicative,  subjunctive,  and  imperative ; 
did  in  the  imperfect,  indicative  and  subjunctive. 

326.  In  the  subjunctive  mood,  these  auxiliaries  re- 
nain  unchanged.  In  the  indicative,  they  are  conj  ugated 
thus  :^— 

havt!  th«  Auxtlikiyt  Had?  828^  Carry  Aor**  through  itn  pcrsotjR  and  ?ium?>on». 
Do  the  nine  with  had.  831  In  w>lemn  style,  what  dove  have  make  in  the  tldrd 
■Ingtilart 

S3S.  How  mn  do  and  did  neadf  In  what  part*  of  the  verb  doea  do  appear  «■ 
an  auzlllaryt    In  what,  didf    SM.  Conjugate  do  and  did  lu  the  aatitJunotiT*  mood. 


110  WILL  AND  SHALL. 


Singular. 

Plural 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Vi 

ri.  I  do, 

We  do, 

1.  I  did, 

We  did, 

2.  Thou  dost, 

You  do, 

2.  Thou  didst, 

You  did. 

&, 

3.  He  does; 

They  do. 

3.  He  did ; 

They  did. 

327.  As  a  principal  verb,  do  makes  do'est  or  dost  [pronounced  dust]  in 
the  second  singular,  and  doeth  or  doth  [dutli]  in  the  solemn  form  of  the 
third  singular.  As  an  auxiliary,  it  makes  dost  alone  in  the  second  singular, 
and  doth  in  the  solemn  form  of  the  third.  "  Thou  do'est^  dost,  wonders ;  he 
doeth,  doth  miracles :  "  but  "  Thou  dost  not  speak ;  doth  he  not  hear?  " 

328.  Will  is  used  as  a  principal  verb,  and  also  as  an 
auxiliary  in  tlie  future  tenses.  It  is  differently  con- 
jugated, according  to  its  use.     Tlius  : — 

Principal  Verb.  Auxiliary. 


1  n.  I  will, 

We  will, 

1.  I  will, 

We  will, 

1  ■<  2.  Thou  wiliest. 

You  will, 

2.  Thou  wilt. 

You  will, 

f^    (3.  He  wills; 

They  will. 

3.  He  wiU ; 

They  wiU. 

329.  Shall,  like  will,  appears  as  an  auxiliary  in  the 
future  tenses.     It  is  thus  conjugated  : — 

Singular. — I  shall,  thou  shalt,  he  shall ; 
Plural. — We  shall,  you  shall,  they  shall. 

330.  FoKCE  OF  WILL  AND  SHALL. — We  saw  in  §  255 
that  the  first  future  implies,  1.  Future  time  simply. 
2.  Determination. 

When  future  time  simply  is  implied,  shall  is  used  as 
the  auxiliary  in  the  first  person,  and  will  in  the  second 
and  third.  I  shall,  thou  wilt,  he  will/  We  shall,  you 
will,  they  will. 

When  determination  is  implied,  will  is  used  in  the 
first  person,  shall  in  the  second  and  third.  /  will,  thou 
shalt,  he  shall  •  We  will,  you  shall,  they  shall. 


In  the  indicative.  327.  What  differences  are  there  in  the  conjugation  of  do  as  a 
prncipal  verb  and  as  an  auxiliary?  S28.  How  is  tcill  used?  Conjugate  will  as  a 
principal  verb.  Conjugate  it  as  an  auxiliary.  329.  In  what  tenses  does  shall  ap- 
pear  as  an  auxiliary  ?  Conjugate  shall.  330.  "What  does  the  first  future  tense  im- 
^ly?  Go  through  the  first  future  tense,  vrhen  future  time  simply  is  implied.  Go 
Ihrough  \he  first  future,  when  determination  is  implied.    When  determination  ia 


WILL  AND  SnALL.  Ill 

In  this  Iatt<  I  i<>i m,  ilie  speaker  declares  his  determination,  in  the  first 
person  altout  himself;  in  the  second,  al>out  the  person  8pokcn  to;  in  the 
third,  alK)ut  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of.  A  promise  or  threat  may 
therefore  l>e  conveyed.  Thus: — "  I  will  go,  if  I  perissli  in  the  attempt  [it 
is  my  determination]."  *'  You  ihall  have  what  you  want  [it  is  my  deter- 
mination— promise]."  "  He  thall  suffer  for  tliis  insult  [it  is  my  deter- 
mination— threat]." 

331.  Will  emphasized  in  the  second  and  the  third  person  implies  deter- 
mination in  the  person  spoken  to  or  of,  respecting  his  own  acts ;  as,  "  He 
will  go  [he  is  determined  to  do  so]."  *'  They  will  not  repent  [they  are 
determined  not  to  do  so]." 

332.  In  questions,  shall  and  will  have  a  different 
force. 

Shall,  in  the  first  person,  a.sk8  for  advice;  "Shall  I  go?"  In  the 
second  person,  it  denotes  futurity  simply;  "Shall  you  go?"  In  the  third 
person,  it  asks  for  the  determination  of  the  person  addressed  respecting 
some  person  or  thing  spoken  of.  "  Shall  this  man  rule  over  us  [is  it  your 
determination]?" 

On  the  other  hand,  vMl  in  all  three  persons  implies  simple  futurity ; 
"Will  I,  you,  he,  be  in  time?"  In  the  second  and  the  third  person,  it 
also  sometimes  asks  for  the  doterminutiou  of  the  person  spoken  to  or  of; 
ag,  "  Will  you  accept  my  invitation  ?  " 

833.  WUl  sometimes  expresses  merely  what  is  habitual ;  aa,  "  He  vnH 
Bit  and  read  for  hours  [he  is  in  the  habit  of  doing  so]." 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  auxiliaries: — Do^st  thou  not  see  thy  danger? — 
He  doi'th  not  walk  safely,  that  walks  in  the  paths  of  sin. — Thou 
Bhalst  not  steal. — To  whom  will  we  flee  for  aid? — I  will  drown  1 
Shall  nobody  save  me? — Shall  he  not  have  departed? — Wilst  thou 
not  stay  ? — No  matter  who  is  present,  I  sliall  state  my  views. 

Supply  the  proper  auxiliary  : — I  expect  that  I  [trill  or  shall?] 
see  my  father.— I  have  resolved  that  I  [will  or  shall?]  rise  early. 
—[Will  or  a?tallf]  it  be  right  to  let  this  go  on  ?— We  [will  or 
ihall  f]  next  proceed  to  treat  of  Optics. — He  [will  or  shall  f]  suc- 

fanplied,  req;>Mtin«  wh»t  !•  H  exerolMd  In  tbe  dlflfcrent  perM>n«  t  What,  therefore, 
may  he  conveyed  t  Give  example*.  381.  What  doe«  tciU  rmphaslu'd  In  the Moood 
and  the  third  peraon  Imply  t  832.  In  queationa,  what  ia  the  furoo  of  skatl  in  thm 
MTwml  pMaonaf    Ot  wUtl   133.  What  doea  «o»U  aomeUmM  ezprMst 


112  AUXILIARIES   OF   THE   POTENTIAL. 

ceed,  if  industry  is  worth  any  thing. — We  [will  or  shall  ?]  have 
left  before  you  arrive. — By  the  time  winter  sets  in,  they  [will  or 
shall  f]  have  taken  their  departure. 


LESSON  XLYII. 

THE    AUXILIARIES    MAY,    CAN,    MUST,    NEED,   MIGHT, 
COULD,    WOULD,    SHOULD. 

334.  May,  can,  must,  and  need,  are  auxiliaries  of  the 
present  potential.     Tliej  are  thus  conjugated : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

I  may,  thou  mayst  (mayest),  he  may ;  We  may,  you  may,  they  may. 

I  can,  thou  canst,  he  can ;  We  can,  you  can,  they  can. 

I  must,  thou  must,  he  must ;  We  must,  you  must,  they  must. 

I  need,  thou  needst  (est),  he  need ;  We  need,  you  need,  they  need. 

335.  These  auxiliaries  followed  by  have  {may  have,  &c.)  indicate  the 
perfect  potential. 

336.  J^eed  is  also  used  as  a  principal  verb ;  as,  "  We 
all  need  pardon." 

837.  As  an  auxiliary,  need  remains  unchanged  in  the  third,  singular.  As 
a  principal  verb,  it  becomes  needs,  or  in  solemn  style  needeth  ;  and  another 
verb  limiting  its  meaning  is  put  in  the  infinitive.  Dr.  Johnson  says,  "  He 
that  can  swim,  need  not  despair."  Here  need  is  an  auxiliary,  and  need 
despair  is  in  the  present  potential.  Shakspeare  says,  "  I  need  not  to  advise 
you  further."  Here  need  is  a  principal  verb  in  the  present  indicative,  mod- 
ified by  the  infinitive  to  advise.  Both  constructions  are  authorized,  but  the 
former  is  the  more  common. 

338.  Might,  could,  would,  and  should,  are  auxiliaries  of 
the  imperfect  potential.     Thej  are  conjugated  thus : — 

Singular.  Plural. 

I  might,  thou  mightst  (est),  he  might ;  We  might,  you  might,  they  might. 

I  could,  thou  couldst  (est),  he  could  ;  We  could,  you  could,  they  could. 

I  would,  thou  wouldst  (est),  he  would ;  We  would,  you  would,  they  would. 

I  should,  thou  shouldst  (est),  he  should ;  We  should,  you  should,  they  should. 

334.  Of  what  tense  are  may,  can,  must,  and  need  the  auxiliaries  ?  Conjugate 
may  ;  can ;  must ;  need.  335.  What  tense  is  indicated  by  these  auxiliaries  fol- 
lowed by  Aafc  ?  336.  Howls  need  also  used?  337.  What  difference  is  there  in  the 
conjugation  of  need  as  a  principal  verb  and  as  an  auxiliary  ?  Give  an  example  of 
two  equivalent  conetructions  with  need,    338.  Of  what  tense  are  might,  coulU, 


WOULD  AiJD  SHOULD.  113 

889.  These  auxiliaries  followed  by  have  {might  have^  Ac.)  indicate  the 
pluperfect  potential. 

340.  In  subjoined  clauses,  after  a  verb  in  the  imper- 
fect tense,  would  and  should  are  used  with  the  same 
difference  of  meaning  for  the  different  persons  as  wiU 
and  «Aa/^  (§  330).    Thus:— 

Futurity. — I  said  I  should  go.     I  told  you  it  vs)uld  not  rain, 
Determintition. — I  said  I  teoiUd  go.     I  told  you  she  sliould  not  go. 

341.  Would  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  what  was  habitual ;  as,  ^^He 
would  sit  and  read  for  hours.** 

342.  Would  is  sometimes,  but  very  rarely,  used  as  a  principal  verb. 
Thus,  in  the  Psalms,  "  Israel  vooxUd  none  of  me." 

343.  Observe  that  when  he^  have^  do^  will,  need,  and 
would,  are  combined  with  a  participle  or  any  other  part 
of  a  principal  verb,  they  are  auxiliaries.  AVhen  not  so 
combined,  they  are  principal  verbs. 

Auxiliaries. — He  is  amusing  the  children.  CsesartMM  loved.  I  do  not 
want  to  be  robbed.  They  haiv  pitied  us.  Do  look.  Save  her,  do.  Doe* 
He  not  help  those  whom  He  vill  save.  Nothing  need  be  said.  Who  icould 
be  a  slanderer? 

Principal  Verbs. — That  story  m  amusing.  Caesar  teas  ambitious. 
Have  pity  on  us.  They  crossed  the  river,  as  they  intende<l  to  do.  Indus- 
try does  wonders.  He  saves  those  whom  He  mils  to  save.  A  workman 
that  needeth  not  to  be  ashamed.     They  looidd  none  of  my  rcproofl 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  anxlUaries : — Cjin  I  leave  the  room? — May  thou  be 
happy! — Men  will  not  listen,  that  they  might  save  their  souls. — 
No  person  needs  blush  when  he  has  done  his  best. — He  cried  out 
in  terror  that  he  should  drown,  nobody  should  help  him. — Can  he 
not  have  started  ? — I  promised  that  ho  would  be  allowetl  to  return 
—Can  thou  not  regulate  thine  own  conduct? — Helen  promised 

would,  and  should  the  auxllUrleRt  Conjnirnto  nu'fhtf  eould  {  would;  should. 
839.  Wb»l  teOM  ia  in<iicnti>d  by  the>«  auxiliaries  folloMred  by  hare  7  84a  How  are 
would  mod  should  u«od  in  •n»  V  =  '  >  ■•  .,f  341.  "Wliat  is  trouid  sonicUmos  uaed 
to  denotot    842.  IIow  Is  ir<i.  •■■*  nscd  t    843.  Wliiob  of  the  nuxiiiariea 

are  also  used  ••  principal  \<  ■  11    v  can  it  be  told  whether  these  worda  ar« 

a  uzUlarlaa  or  principal  verbs  t    Oive  exMoplea, 


114  THE  VERB  BE. 

that  she  might  write  to-morrow. — Thou  need  not  have  taken  such 
pains  with  it. — A  prize  was  offered  to  him  who  would  write  the 
best  composition. 


LESSON  XLYIII. 

THE    VERB    BE. 

344.  The  intransitive  verb  he  is  conjugated  thus 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

g*  (  1.  I  am,  1.  "We  are, 

1^2.  Thou  art,  2.  You  are, 

;§  (3.  He  is;  3.  Thej  are. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

1.  I  was,  1.  We  were, 

2.  Thou  wast  or  wert,  2.  You  were, 

3.  He  was;  3.  They  were. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  have  been,  1.  We  have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been,  2.  You  have  been, 

3.  He  has  been  ;  3.  They  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1.  I  had  been,  1.  We  had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been,  2.  You  had  been, 
8.  He  had  been ;  3.  They  had  been. 

First  Future  Tense. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be,  1.  We  shall  or  will  bo, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,         2.  You  shall  or  will  be, 
8.'  H«  shall  or  will  be ;  3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 


THE  VERB  BE.  115 

Second  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been,  1.  Wo  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,        2.  You  shall  or  will  have  been, 
8.  He  shall  or  will  have  been;  8.  They  shall  or  will  have  been. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  I  may,  can,  must,  or  need  be,  1.  "We  may,  can,  must,  or  need  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  canst,*  &c.,  be,     2.  You  may,  can,  must,  or  need  be, 
8.  He  may,  can,  mast,  or  need      8.  They  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

be;  be. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or        1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be,  should  be, 

2.  ThoumighUt,  could8t,&c.,be,  2.  You  might,  could,  <fec.,  be, 

3.  Ho  might,  could,  &c.,  be ;        3.  They  might,  could,  «&c.,  be. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  may,  can,  must,  or  need        1.  We  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

have  been,  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  &c.,  have  been,   2.  You  may,  &c.,  have  been, 

3.  He  may,  &c.,  have  been ;        8.  They  may,  &c.,  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or        1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been,  should  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  &c.,  have  been,  2.  You  might,  &c.,  have  been, 
8.  He  might,  ^c,  have  been ;      3.  They  might,  &c.,  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  If  I  be,  1.  If  we  be, 

2.  If  tliou  be,  2.  If  you  be, 
8.  If  he  be;  8.  If  they  be. 

*  Id  rooiUng,  Always  giv«  all  the  auxUlwias^T^lkoM  maytf,  const,  must,  of 


116  EEMAKKS  ON  THE  VERB  BK 

Imperfect  Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were,  1.  If  we  were, 

2.  If  thou  were,  2.  If  you  were, 
8.  If  lie  were ;  3.  If  tliej  were. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  Be  I,  1.  Be  we, 

2.  Be  thou  or  do  thou  be,         2.  Be  you  or  diO  you  be, 

3.  Be  he;  3.  Be  they. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense.    To  be.  Perfect  Tense.    To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present.  Being.    Perfect.  Been.     Compound  Perfect.  Having  been, 

345.  Remarks. — Besides  the  forms  given  above  in  the  present  indica< 
tive,  we  find  the  following  used  by  old  writers: — I  be,  thou  beest,  he  be  ; 
we  be,  you  be,  they  be.  "  We  be  twelve  brethren." — Genesis,  chap.  42. 
"  I  think  it  be  thine  indeed." — Shakspeare.  These  forms  are  obsolete,  and 
should  not  now  be  used. 

846.  Were  is  sometimes  used  for  would  be,  and  must  then  be  parsed 
as  in  the  potential  imperfect ;  as,  "  It  were  impossible  to  tell  thee  all  I 
feel." 

347.  The  conjunction  if  is  sometimes  omitted  before  the  pluperfect 
indicative,  and  the  present  and  imperfect  subjunctive.  In  this  case,  the 
verb  or  its  auxiliary  is  placed  before  the  subject;  as,  "Had  Caesar  been 
prudent,  he  would  have  paused  [for  if  Ccesar  had  been\P  "  Be  it  \if  it 
be]  a  ghost,  I  care  not."  "Were  all  Christians  [if  all  Christians  were]  ha 
earnest,  what  glorious  results  would  be  achieved  ! " 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  articles,  adjectives,  and  verbs : — All 
men  are  mortal. — We  must  be  cautious. — Had  King  Richard  been 

345.  What  obsolete  form  of  the  present  indicative  do  we  find  in  old  writers  ? 
846.  For  what  is  were  sometimes  used  ?  How  must  it  then  be  parsed?  347.  What 
i«  Raid  with  regard  to  the  omission  of  the  conjunction  if  7 


ACTIVE  VOICE  OF  THE  VEEB  BULK.  117 

a  lion,  he  could  not  have  been  braver. — Bo  we  contented. — God 
be  gracious  unto  thee,  my  son  I — The  world  will  be  wiser  than  it 
has  ever  been. — If  you  be  mistaken,  we  shall  all  be  wretched. — 
To  be  truly  happy  \%  the  great  end  of  life. — Having  been  there,  I 
am  certain  this  is  the  way. 


LESSON   XLIX. 

CONJUGATION  OF  A  TRANSITIVE  VERB  IN  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

348.  Tlie  verb  bule,  which  will  serve  as  an  example 
of  all  transitive  verbs,  is  thus  conjugated  in  the  active 
voice : — 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense, 

Sintpdar.  Plural. 

1.  I  rule  or  do  rule,  1.  We  rule  or  do  rule, 

2.  Thou  rulest  or  dost  rule,  2.  You  rule  or  do  rule, 
8.  He  rules  or  does  rule ;  8.  They  rule  or  do  rule. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

1.  I  ruled  or  did  rule,  1.  We  ruled  or  did  rule, 

2.  Thou  ruledst  or  didst  rule,       2.  You  ruled  or  did  rule, 
8.  He  ruled  or  did  mle ;  8.  They  ruled  or  did  rule. 

Perfect  Tense, 

1.  I  have  ruled,  1.  We  have  ruled, 

2.  Thou  hast  ruled,  2.  You  have  ruled, 
8.  He  has  ruled ;  8.  They  have  ruled. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1.  I  had  ruled,  1.  We  had  ruled, 

2.  Thou  hadst  ruled,  2.  You  had  ruled, 
8.  He  had  ruled ;  8.  They  had  ruled. 

First  Future  Tense. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  rule,  1.  We  shall  or  will  rule, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  rule,  2.  You  shall  or  will  rule, 
S.  He  shall  or  wiD  rule ;              8.  They  shall  or  will  rule. 


118  ACTIVE  VOICE  OF  THE  VEEB  RULE. 

Second  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  ruled,        1.  We  shall  or  will  have  ruled, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  ruled,  2.  You  shall  or  will  have  ruled, 
3    He  shall  or  will  have  ruled ;     3.  They  shall  or  will  have  ruled. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  I  may,   can,  must,  or  need    1.  We  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

rule,  rule, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  &c.,  rule,     2.  You  may,  can,  &c.,  rule, 

3.  He  may,  can,  &c.,  rule ;  3.  They  may,  can,  &c.,  rule. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

1.  I   might,    could,    would,    or    1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  rule,  should  rule, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  &c.,  rule,  2.  You  might,  &c.,  rule, 

3.  He  might,  «fec.,  rule ;  3.  They  might,  &c.,  rule. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1.  Imay, can, must, orneed have    1.  We  may,  can,  must,  <>rneed 

ruled,  have  ruled, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  &c.,  have  ruled,     2.  You  may,  &c.,  have  ruled, 

3.  He  may,  &c.,  have  ruled ;  3.  They  may,  &c.,  have  ruled. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1.  I    might,    could,   would,    or    1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  ruled,  should  have  ruled, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  &c.,  have  ruled,    2.  You  might,  &c.,  have  ruled, 

3.  He  might,  &c.,  have  ruled ;        3.  They  might,  &c.,  have  ruled. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  If  I  rule  or  do  rule,  1.  If  we  rule  or  do  rule, 

2.  If  thou  rule  or  do  rule,  2.  If  you  rule  or  do  rule, 
8.  If  he  rule  or  do  rule ;                3.  If  they  rule  or  do  rule^ 


RKMARKfl   ON   TUB  VEBB.  110 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  ruled  or  did  rule,  1.  If  we  ruled  or  did  rule, 

2.  If  thou  ruled  or  did  rule,  2.  If  you  ruled  or  did  rule, 
8.  If  he  ruled  or  did  rule ;  8.  If  thej  ruled  or  did  rule. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  Rule  I,  1.  Rule  we, 

2.  Rule  thou  or  do  thou  rule,       2.  Rule  you  or  do  you  rule, 
8.  Rule  he ;  8.  Rule  they. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense.  To  rule.  Perfect  Tense.  To  have  ruled. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present.  Ruling.      Perfect.  Ruled.      Comp.  Perfect.  Having  ruled. 

849.  Remarks. — Except  in  solemn  and  poetical  style,  the  second  per- 
son plural  of  the  verb  is  used  in  addressing  a  single  person,  in  stead  of  the 
second  singular.  In  conversation  we  say  you  rule^  not  thou  rulest,  though 
but  one  person  is  referred  to ;  but  in  prayer  or  poetry  we  say  thou  rulest. 

350.  In  the  third  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative,  there  is  a 
solemn  form  ending  in  th ;  as,  he  ruleth. 

851.  The  compound  forms  of  the  present  and  imperfect  indicative, 
containing  do  and  did,  are  properly  used  when  a  negation  is  expressed  or 
emphasis  is  required  ;  as,  "  '  You  do  not  love  me.'  '  I  do  love  you.' "  "  He 
Bays  I  did  not  go,  but  I  did  go.'''' — When  there  is  no  emphasis  or  negation, 
the  simple  form  is  to  be  preferred  as  stronger.  "  We  beseech  thee,"  not 
"  we  (A)  beseech  thee.'* 

862.  To  avoid  a  disagreeable  combination  of  consonants,  the  tcrmina 
tion  st  is  sometimes  omitted  by  good  writers  in  the  second  person  singular 
of  the  imperfect  indicative.  Thus  Pollok  says,  thou  conquered,  thou  came, 
thou  noticed,  thou  lifted.  So  Pope: — thou  who  touched;  thy  tpord  ufho 
knew  no  wish.  The  regular  form,  however,  is  more  used,  and  therefore  to 
be  preferred- 

849.  In  what  number  do  wo  conamonly  nue  the  vorb  when  wo  addroM  a  atnglo 
perennt  860.  Olvo  the  ■olcmn  form  of  llie  present  Indicative  In  the  thir!  pervon. 
tSL  When  it  it  proper  to  use  the  compound  forms  of  the  proeent  and  Imperfeel 
Indicative t    S&2.  In  what  part  is  •(  omittc'd  by  some  writers t    Why!    Whioh 


120  PASSIVE   VOICE. 

353.  In  the  imperative  mood,  most  grammars  give  only  the  second  per- 
son. But  all  three  persons  are  found  in  standard  writers,  and  may  be  used 
when  occasion  requires.  First  person.  "  Cursed  he  I  that  did  bo." 
— Shakspeare.  "  Proceed  we  therefore." — Pope.  Third  person.  "  Thy 
will  be  doneJ'^ — Bible,     "  Be  it  knoum.^^ 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  verbs^  and  parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs  in  the 
sentences  thus  completed : — Strike  while  the  iron  —  hot.  "Whatso- 
ever thy  hand  findeth  to  do,  —  it  with  thy  might.  The  bittern  — 
in  desolate  places.  The  day  may  —  when  justice  will  triumph. 
Having  thus  deceived  the  enemy,  Washington  —  to  Princeton.  If 
the  climate  of  Africa  —  not  so  fatal,  more  travellers  —  there.  In 
stead  of  oppressing  his  subjects,  Nero  might  greatly  have  benefited 
them,  if  he  —  to  —  so.  A  French  ofiicer,  on  visiting  the  mother 
of  Washington,  — :  "  liTo  wonder  America  has  —  such  a  leader, 
since  be  —  such  a  mother  I " 


LESSON  L. 

CONJUGATION    OF    A    TRANSITIVE    VEEB    IN    THE 
PASSIVE    VOICE. 

354.  The  various  parts  of  the  passive  voice  are  formed 
by  combining  the  perfect  participle  with  the  correspond- 
ing parts  of  the  auxiliary  he.  All  transitive  verbs  are 
conjugated  in  the  passive  voice  according  to  the  follow- 
ing model : — 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am  ruled,  1.  We  are  ruled, 

2.  Thou  art  ruled,  2.  You  are  ruled, 

3.  He  is  ruled ;  3.  They  are  ruled. 

form  is  to  be  preferred  ?    353.  Give  some  exampleB  ehowing  that  all  three  peraonB 
euro  fouud  in  the  imperative  mood. 


PASSIVE  VOICE  OF    iiih    \  j.i:l{  iiULE.  121 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Phiral. 

1.  I  was  ruled,  1.  We  were  ruled, 

2.  Thou  wast  or  wert  ruled,  2.  You  were  ruled, 
8.  He  was  ruled ;  8.  They  were  ruled. 

Perfect  Tense, 

1.  I  have  been  ruled,  1.  We  have  been  ruled, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  ruled,  2.  You  have  been  ruled, 
8.  lie  has  been  ruled  ;  8.  They  have  been  ruled. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1.  I  had  been  ruled,  1.  We  had  been  ruled, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  ruled,         2.  You  had  been  ruled, 
8.  lie  had  been  ruled ;  8.  They  had  been  ruled. 

Pirst  Future  Tense. 
1  I  shall  or  will  be  ruled,  1.  We  shall  or  will  be  ruled, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  ruled,    2.  You  shall  or  will  be  ruled, 
8.  lie  shall  or  will  be  ruled ;       8.  They  shall  or  will  be  ruled. 

Second  Future  Tense, 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been    1.  We  shall  or  will  have  been 

ruled,  ruled, 

2.  Thou  shalt  ar  wilt  have  been    2.  You  shall  or  will  have  been 

ruled,  ruled, 

8.  He  shall  or  will  have  been    8.  They  shall  or  will  have  been 
ruled ;  ruled. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Present  Tense, 

1.  I  majt  can,  must,  or  need        1.  We  may,  can,  must,  or  need  be 

be  ruled,  ruled, 

2.  Thou  raayst,  &o.,  be  ruled,       2.  You  may,  &c.,  be  ruled, 
8.  He  may,  &c.,  be  ruled ;  8.  They  may,  &c.,  be  ruled. 

Imperfect  Tense, 

1.  I  might,  conld,  would,  or        1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be  ruled,  should  be  ruled, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  Ac,  be  ruled,    2.  You  might,  &c.,  be  ruled, 
8.  He  might,  ^.,  be  ruled ;         8.  They  might,  &c.,  be  ruled. 

6 


122  PASSIVE  VOICE  OF  THE  VERB  RULE, 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may,  can,  must,  or  need        1.  We  may,  can,  must    or  need 

have  been  ruled,  have  been  ruled, 

2,  Thou  mayst,  canst,  must,  or       2.  You  may,  can,  must,  or  need 

needst  have  been  ruled,  have  been  ruled, 

S.  He  may,    can,   must,   or        3.  They  may,  can,  must,  or  need 
need  have  been  ruled ;  have  been  ruled. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or        1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been  ruled,  should  have  been  ruled, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  &c.,  have        2.  You  might,   &c.,  have   been 

been  ruled,  ruled, 

8.  He  might,  &c.,  have  been        3.  They  might,  &c.,  have  been 
ruled ;  ruled. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense. 

1.  If  I  be  ruled,  1.  If  we  be  ruled, 

2.  If  thou  be  ruled,  2.  If  you  be  ruled, 

3.  If  he  be  ruled ;  3.  If  they  be  ruled. 

Imperfect  Tense, 

1.  If  I  were  ruled,  1.  If  we  were  ruled, 

2.  If  thou  were  ruled,  2.  If  you  were  ruled, 

3.  If  he  were  ruled ;  3.  K  they  were  ruled. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  Be  I  ruled,  1.  Be  we  ruled, 

2.  Be  thou  or  do  thou  bo  ruled,   2.  Be  you  or  do  you  be  ruled, 
e.  Be  he  ruled ;  3.  Be  they  ruled. 

IXFINITIYE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense.    To  be  ruled.    Perfect  Tense.    To  have  been  ruledc 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present.    Being  ruled.  Perfect.    Euled. 

Comp,  Perfect.    Having  been  ruled. 


BEMABK8   ON   TUE    VERB.  123 

866.  Some  verbs,  bemdes  the  regular  present  participle  passive  given 
above,  have  tlieir  participle  in  ing  used  with  a  passive  meaning ;  as,  the 
houses  now  erectinff^  a  book  now  publishing  in  numbers.  Parse  a  participle 
in  ing  thus  used  as  the  present  participle  passive. 

856.  Cautions. — In  old  writers  we  sometimes  find  the  perfect  of  cer- 
tain intransitive  verbs  formed  with  am  in  stead  of  have,  and  the  pluperfect 
with  iroj  in  stead  of  had.  Thus : — Winter  t«  [has]  come ;  they  are  [liave] 
arrived ;  when  thej  tcere  [had]  gone ;  happiness  teas  [had]  flown.  These 
forms  are  now  rarely  used,  and  should  be  avoided.  Do  not  take  them  for 
passive  tenses,  which  they  resemble,  but  parse  thus :  /«  coim  is  an  in- 
transitive verb,  used  for  has  come;  in  the  indicative  mood,  perfect 
tense,  &c. 

357.  We  have  seen  (§  808)  that  there  are  some  adjectives  identical 
in  fonn  with  pai-ticiples.  Do  not,  therefore,  confound  the  verb  be  followed 
by  such  an  adjective,  with  a  passive  compound  tense.  Observe  the  differ- 
ence in  the  following  examples : — 

Verb  BB  and  adjective. — I  am  obliged  to  you.  You  are  mistaken.  She 
M  accomplished.     He  is  resolved  to  go.     I  am  inclined  to  remain. 

TVanHiive  verb  in  tht  passive  voice. — I  am  obliged  to  return.  Some- 
times hypocrites  are  mistaken  for  pious  men.  The  deed  is  accomplished. 
Water  m  resolved  into  its  elements.     My  body  is  inclined  by  years. 

358.  Changs  of  Construction. — A  sentence  containing  a  verb  in  the 
active  voice  may  often  be  converted  into  an  equivalent  one  containing 
a  verb  in  the  passive.  Thus : — *'  Caesar  invaded  Britain."  Make  three 
changes.  1.  Change  the  active  verb  invaded  to  the  same  part  of  the  pas- 
sire  voice,  wu  invaded.  2.  Take  the  object  Britain  for  the  subject  of  the 
passive  verb,  Britain  vxu  invaded.  8.  Introduce  the  preposition  bt/  after 
the  passive  verb  with  the  former  subject  Ccesar  for  its  object,  Britain  tea* 
invaded  by  Ccesar. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  following  senteixces  (see  §  856),  and  mention  the 
mood  and  tenee  of  each  terb : — What  is  become  of  your  father  ?— 
Samuel  is  grown  out  of  my  recollection. — The  Jews  were  <le- 


8(6.  How  do  ■omc  verbs  have  thpir  participle  in  ing  usedf  When  po  qmkI, 
how  ia  tbia  participle  to  be  parMd  f  35«.  How  do  we  •ometitnefl  find  the  perfect 
of  certain  intranaitive  verba  formed  f  Give  examples.  What  is  a.ild  of  auch 
forma  t  Show  how  to  parse  them.  367.  With  what  ia  there  danger  of  confoundiug 
the  verb  tte  followed  by  an  a^Jeotivct  Give  examples  showing  the  dlflbrenee^ 
868.  Into  what  may  a  aeotenoe  oontaining  a  verb  in  the  active  voioo  oftan  be  eoQ- 
Ttrted  t    EnmiMnUa  the  obanges  to  be  made. 


124  PfiOGRESSIVE   FOEM   OF   THE   VERB. 

parted  out  of  the  land. — The  strife  is  ceased. — He  was  not  yet 
descended  from  Heaven. — Cold  weather  was  already  set  in. — The 
spectre  was  vanished. 

Farse  the  noum^  adjectives,  and  verbs  {see  §  357) : — Most  per- 
sons are  ashamed  to  confess  that  they  have  heen  imposed  upon 
{see  §  239). — Demosthenes  was  hent  on  defeating  King  Philip's 
ambitious  designs. — "We  are  indebted  to  Newton  for  some  most 
important  discoveries  in  Optics. — Free  countries  are  generally  en- 
lightened.— It  is  proved  that  the  earth's  axis  is  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit. 

Change  these  sentences  to  equivalent  ones  containing  a  passive 
verb  {see  §  358)  : — Crocodiles  inhabit  the  NUe. — Wm.  Penn  founded 
Philadelphia. — Men  have  turned  steam  to  great  account. — Bur- 
goyne  had  already  invaded  New  York. — You  must  conquer  all 
evil  passions. — This  news  will  surprise  our  neighbors. — All  good 
men  should  abhor  a  tyrant. — Wine  must  have  overthrown  Alex- 
ander's reason. 


LESSON  LI. 

PROGRESSIVE    FORM    OF    THE    VERB. 

359.  Some  verbs  denote  an  action  or  state,  in  which, 
from  its  very  nature,  continuance  is  implied  ;  as,  I  love^ 
I  remeinber.  Others  affirm  an  action  or  state  without 
reference  to  its  continuance  ;  as,  I  rule^  I  speak. 

Verbs  of  the  latter  class  have  a  distinct  form  which 
is  to  be  used  when  the  idea  of  continuance  is  to  be 
prominently  conveyed.  It  is  called  the  Progressive 
Form,  and  is  made  by  combining  the  participle  in  ing 
with  the  various  parts  of  the  auxiliary  he,  as  follows. 
Recite  all  the  persons  in  both  numbers. 


359.  Afl  regards  continuance,  what  difference  ia  there  in  the  signification  of 
verbs?  What  verbs  have  a  distinct  form  to  imply  continuance?  What  id  U 
called  ?    How  is  it  formed  I 


PROGRESSIVE   FORM   OF  THE   VERB.  125 

PROGRESSIVE   FORM. 

Indicative  Mood. 
pRKflENT. — I  am  ruling,  thou  art  ruling,  &c. 
Imperfect. — I  was  ruling,  thou  wast  or  went  ruling,  &c. 
Perfect. — I  have  been  ruling,  thou  hast  been  ruling,  &c. 
Pluperfect. — I  had  been  ruling,  thou  hadst  been  ruling,  <feo. 
First  Future. — I  shall  or  will  be  ruling,  thou  shalt  or  wilt,  &c. 
Second  Future. — 1  shall  or  will  have  been  ruling,  &c. 

Potential  Mood, 
Present. — I  may,  can,  must,  or  need  be  ruling. 
Imperfect. — I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  bo  ruling. 
Perfect. — I  may,  can,  must,  or  need  have  been  ruling. 
Pluperfect. — 1  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been  ruling. 

Subjunctive  Mood, 
Present. — If  I  be  ruling,  if  thou  be  ruling,  &c. 
Imperfect. — If  I  were  ruling,  if  thou  were  ruling,  Ac. 

Imperative  Mood. 
PBESEirr. — Be  thou  ruling  or  do  thou  be  ruling,  &c. 

Infinitive  Mood. 
Present. — To  be  ruling.  Perfect. — To  have  been  ruling. 

Participles. 
Present. — Ruling.  Comp.  Perfect. — Having  been  ruling. 

860.  Remarks. — Verbs  whose  simple  form  denotes  continuance,  have 
no  progressive  form.  Such  expressions  as  I  am  loving  you^  I  vDoa  remem- 
bering my  friends  y  are  not  good  English. 

861.  All  the  parts  of  the  progressive  form  given  above  are  used  with 
an  active  signification ;  and  m  the  first  and  second  person  they  are  only 
«o  used.  But  we  have  seen  (§  855)  that,  in  the  case  of  some  verbs,  tho 
participle  in  ing  has  a  passive  as  well  as  an  active  meaning ;  and  in  these 
the  third  person  of  the  progrearive  form  is  also  used  pas^vely.     "  Houses 

800.  What  Twrb*  h«T»  no  progr— ■Iva  form  f  881.  Wh»t  ilimiflcatlon  have  nil 
tb«  part*  of  the  pragnMlw  fbrm  Just  gfvent    What  dURireat  aignifloaUoD  haa  the 


126  EEMAKKS   ON   THE   PROGRESSIVE   FORM. 

are  rapidly  erecting.^  "The  book  is  publishing  in  numbers."  "  Addison's 
works  were  reprinting.'" 

362.  In  the  present  and  imperfect  indicative  passive,  another  progres- 
sive form  is  used,  though  it  is  less  elegant  than  the  one  given  above.  It  is 
formed  by  combining  the  present  participle  passive  with  am  and  was,  car- 
ried through  their  several  persons  and  numbers ;  as,  "  Houses  are  being 
erected.'''^  "  The  will  of  Heaven  was  being  accomplished^  This  form  it  is 
best  to  avoid.  Use  the  other  form  in  stead,  or  change  the  entire  expres- 
sion :  "Houses  are  in  course  of  erection.''^  "The  will  of  Heaven  was 
undergoing  its  acconiplishment.'*'' 

When  the  progressive  form  of  a  verb  used  with  a  certain  subject  is  sus- 
ceptible of  an  active  meaning,  it  must  be  used  only  with  that  meaning. 
Thus  we  must  not  say  the  Christians  were  persecuting^  unless  we  mean  that 
they  persecuted  others.  If  we  mean  they  were  persecuted  themselves, 
in  stead  of  this  form  or  the  one  mentioned  in  the  last  paragraph  {the 
Christians  were  being  pei'secuted\  we  use  some  equivalent  expression,  such 
as  the  Christians  were  undergoing  persecution. 

363.  Parsing. — When  a  verb  is  in  the  progressive 
form,  state  it  in  parsing  after  mentioning  the  number. 
To  determine  whether  it  is  in  the  active  or  passive  voice, 
see  whether  it  represents  its  subject  as  acting  or  acted 
upon. 

I  am  reading.  These  things  were  transacting  tn^ 
America. 

Am  reading  is  an  intransitive  verb,  in  the  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  first  person,  singular  number,  progressive  form,  and  agrees  with  its 
subject  I: — Ride^  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 

Were  transacting  is  a  transitive  verb,  in  the  passive  voice,  indicative 
mood,  imperfect  tense,  third  person,  plural  number,  progressive  form,  and 
agrees,  &a 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  following  sentences  hy  changing  the  'verbs  from  the 
progressive  to  the  common  form : — All  men  are  loving  truth. — Xo 

third  i)erBon  of  this  form  in  certain  verbs  ?  Give  examples.  362.  What  other  pro- 
gressive form  is  used  in  the  present  and  imperfect  indicative  passive  ?  What  is 
said  with  respect  to  this  form  ?  When  must  the  progressive  form  of  a  verb  be 
need  only  with  an  active  meaning  ?  If,  in  such  a  case,  we  wish  to  convey  a  pasnive 
meuning  with  the  idea  of  coiitinuance,  how  must  it  be  done  ?    363.  How  ia  a  verb 


NEGATIVE  CONJUGATION.  127 

one  was  esteeming  him.— We  shall  be  seeing  what  will  happen. — 
I  can  not  be  disliking  her. — We  must  bo  remaining  till  to-morrow. 
— She  asked  me  not  to  be  forgetting  her. — 11"  thou  were  wishing  to 
help  me,  thou  conldst  easily  do  it. 

Cfuinge  the  verbs  to  the  corresponding  progressive  form^  and  then 
parse  them: — The  wind  blows. — The  storm  raged. — I  will  wait  for 
you. — He  must  have  dined. — Do  you  write? — Etforts  are  made. — 
The  poor  must  sutler. — 1  had  listened  to  an  opera. — A  civil  war 
was  waged. — A  canal  was  dug. — The  criminal  is  punished. — Did 
he  enjoy  himself? — James  may  have  talked  to  my  brotlier. — A  re- 
port is  circulated. — I  shall  visit  in  Washington  next  week. 


LESSON  LII. 

NEGATIVE   AND   INTERROGATIVE   CONJUGATIONS. 

364.  Negative  Conjugation. — The  meaning  of  a 
verb  is  made  negative  by  joining  to  it  the  adverb  not. 

365.  In  the  mfinitive  mood  and  the  participles,  7wt 
precedes  the  verb :  as,  Twt  to  nde^  not  to  have  ruled ; 
not  ruling^  not  hamng  ruled.  So  in  the  passive  voice : 
not  to  he  ruled,  not  to  have  been  ruled ;  not  being  ruled^ 
not  ruled,  not  having  been  ruled. 

In  the  other  parts,  if  the  tense  is  simple,  not  must  be 
placed  after  the  verb  ;  and,  if  compound,  after  the  first 
auxiliary  ;  as,  I  rule  not,  I  shall  not  be  ruled. 

366.  Go  through  the  negative  conjugation,  forming 
the  tenses  in  order,  as  follows  : — 

Indicative. — Present.  I  rule  not  or  do  not  rale, 

Thou  rulest  not  or  dost  not  rule,  &c. 
Imperfect.  I  ruled  not  or  did  not  rule. 
Perfect.  I  have  not  ruled,  &c. 

in  the  progrwiv  form  to  be  paned  t    How  e«n  it  be  determined  whether  it  le  to 
the  ective  or  paeslve  voice  t    Learn  the  pareln^r  form 

364.  How  Is  the  meaning  of  a  verb  made  nevativef  865.  Whiit  is  the  position 
of  the  adverb  not,  in  the  inilnltive  mood  and  tlie  participles!  What,  in  the  olhff 
partat    800.  Qo  through  the  mUt*  voioe  of  the  verb  nt/e,  oozOugated  negatively. 


128  INTKBKOGATIVE   CONJUGATION. 

So  in  the  passive  voice : — I  am  not  ruled,  I  was  not  ruled,  I 
have  not  been  ruled,  I  had  not  been  ruled,  &c. 

So  in  the  progressive  form : — I  am  not  ruling,  I  was  not  ruling, 
I  have  not  been  ruling,  I  had  not  been  ruling,  &c. 

367.  Contractions. — In  conversation,  the  auxiliary  and  not  following 
it  are  often  contracted.  Hence  arise  such  forms  as  don't^  didn't.^  havn% 
haii't,  hadii't,  wonH^  shanH^  mayn't^  &c.  These  contractions  are  inadmis- 
sible in  dignified  composition.  If  they  occur  in  parsing,  treat  them  thus : 
— "  Don't  laugh."  DonH  is  a  contraction  for  do  not.  Do  laugh  is  an 
intransitive  verb,  &c.     Not  is  an  adverb. 

368.  Interrogative  Conjugation. — A  verb  is  said  to 
be  used  interrogatively  when  a  question  is  asked  with  it; 
as,  "Eulest  thou?"  "Dost  thou  rulef'  In  this  case,  the 
subject,  in  stead  of  being  placed  before  the  verb,  is 
placed  after  it  if  the  tense  is  simple,  and  after  tbe  first 
auxiliary  if  the  tense  is  compound. 

369.  The  indicative  and  the  potential  mood  only  can 
be  used  interrogatively.  Go  through  the  tenses,  com- 
mencing thus : — 

Indicative. — Present.  Kule  I  or  do  I  rule?    Kulest  thou  or 
dost  thou  rule  ?  «fec. 
Imperfect.  Ruled  I  or  did  I  rule  ?     Ruledst  thou 

or  didst  thou  rule  ?  &c. 
Perfect.  Have  I  ruled?     Hast  thou  ruled?  &c. 
So  in  the  passive  voice : — Am  I  ruled  ?    Was  I  ruled  ?  &c. 
So  in  the  progressive  form : — ^Am  I  ruling  ?     Was  I  ruling  ?  &c. 

370.  IN'egative  -  intekkogative  Conjugation. — ^The 
interrogative  conjugation  is  made  negative  by  placing 
the  adverb  not  immediately  after  the  subject. 

371.  Go  through  the  tenses,  commencing  thus  : — 

Phe  passive  voice.  The  progressive  form.  367.  What  contractions  are  frequently 
made  in  conversation  ?  What  is  said  of  the  use  of  these  contractions  in  comi)o> 
Bition  ?  Give  an  example  of  the  mode  of  parsing  them.  368.  When  is  a  verb  said 
to  be  used  interrogatively  ?  When  it  is  thus  used,  where  does  its  subject  stand  ? 
369.  What  moods  alone  are  used  interrogatively  ?  Conjugate  the  active  voice  of 
the  verb  rule  interrogatively.  The  passive  voice.  The  progressive  form.  370.  How 
Is  the  interrogative  conjugation  made  negative  f    371.  Give  the  active  voice  of  the 


NEOATIVE-INTEBROGATIVE   CONJTGA'nON.  129 

INDICATIVE. — Present  Role  I  not  or  do  I  not  role? 

Imperfect.  Kuled  I  not  or  did  I  not  rule? 
Perfect,  llave  I  not  ruled  ?  &c. 
So  in  the  passive  voice : — Am  I  not  ruled  ?    Was  I  not  ruled? 
Have  I  not  been  ruled  ?     Uad  I  not  been  ruled  ?  &c. 

So  in  the  progressive  form: — Am  I  not  ruling?  "Was  I  not 
ruling?     Have  I  not  been  ruling?    Uad  I  not  been  ruling?  &c. 

872.  The  adverb  no<  is  sometimes  placed  before  the  subject ;  as,  "Dave 
not  I  entreated  thee?"     "  Did  not  they  insult  me?" 

873.  The  interrogative  form  of  the  verb  is  used,  when  we  ask  simply 
for  information  and  are  in  doubt  whether  the  answer  will  be  yen  or  no.  The 
negative-interrogative  form  is  used  when  we  expect  the  answer  yea.  If  I 
am  uncertain  whether  you  are  going  to  a  certain  place,  I  ask,  "  Are  you 
going?"  If  I  think  you  intend  to  go  or  ought  to  do  so,  I  ask,  "Are  you 
not  going?" 

874.  In  the  present  and  imperfect  indicative  of  the  above  conjugations, 
there  are  two  forms.  Of  these,  the  compound  forms  containing  do  and  did 
are  the  ones  commonly  used ;  the  simple  forms  appear  only  in  solemn  style 
or  poetry. 

Common  Form. — Do  you  not  know?  Did  you  hear  those  loud  con- 
tending notes  ?     Did  I  not  speak  to  you  ? 

So/emn  and  Poetical  Porm. — Know  ye  not?  Heard  ye  those  loud 
contending  notes  ?    Spake  I  not  unto  thee  ? 

EXERCISE. 
Change  the  verbs  suecessitely   to   the  corresponding  tense   of 
the  progressive,  negative,  interrogative,  and  negative-interrogative 
form.     Thus : — 

Progressive. — Ho  is  smiling. 
Negative. — Ue  does  not  smile. 
Interrogative. — Does  he  smile? 
Negative-interrogative. — Does  he  not  smDet 
She  langhed.  Tou  have  called  him. 

Jane  looks  well.  Lawyers  make  money. 

Thou  hast  written.  You  deceive  yourself. 

verb  rttie,  acoordlng  to  the  nefratire-interrogative  conjugation.  The  pafslve  voieeL 
The  progreMive  form.  872.  Where  is  the  adverb  nor  nometirnes  placed  t  373.  When 
Is  the  interrogative  form  of  the  verb  UK>d,  and  when  the  negative-Interrogative  t 
874.  In  th«M>  eonjugationn,  which  la  the  common  form  of  the  present  and  Imperfecl 
lodieative  f  Where  alone  do  the  ilmple  forme  appear  t  Give  eramplea. 
6* 


He  smiles. 


130  THE  BOOT  OF  THE  VERB. 

OsBsar  overran  Gaul.  He  will  suffer  torture. 

Some  birds  sing.  You  had  walked  rapidly. 

They  may  wait.  He  might  have  watched. 

Thou  must  go.  They  would  make  trouble. 


LESSON   LIII. 

VERBS    DISTINGUISHED    AS    REGULAR   AND    IRREGULAR. 

375.  Boot  of  ths  Yerl. — ^Tlie  present  infinitive  active 
without  its  sign  to^  is  the  Koot  of  the  verb.  The  first 
person  singular  of  the  present  indicative,  subjunctive, 
and  imperative,  has  the  same  form  as  the  root ;  as,  to 
rule,  I  rule,  if  I  rule,  rule  I. 

The  verb  he  is  the  only  exception  to  this  rule.  It  makes  I  am,  not  7  be^ 
in  the  present  indicative,  though  it  forms  its  present  subjunctive  and  im- 
perative regularly,  if  I  be,  be  I. 

376.  The  present  active  participle  is  formed  by  add- 
ing ing  to  the  root,  making  such  changes  in  the  latter 
as  may  be  required  by  the  rules  of  spelling :  as,  land, 
landing ;  he,  being ;  rule,  ruling ;  pin,  ^mNing ;  permit, 
permitting. 

377.  Formation  of  the  Compound  Tenses. — The  root 
of  the  verb  is  combined  with  auxiliaries  in  the  following 
compound  tenses  of  the  active  voice  : — 

Indicative  and  Subjunctive  Present. — I  do  rule. 

Indicative  and  Subjunctive  Imperfect. — I  did  rule. 

Indicative  Future. — I  shall  or  will  rule,  be. 

Potential  Present. — I  may,  can,  must,  or  need  rule,  be. 

Potential  Imperfect. — I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  rule,  be. 

Imperative  Present. — ^Do  thou  rule. 

The  other  compound  tenses  of  the  active  voice  are 

375.  What  is  the  Root  of  the  verb  ?  What  parte  of  the  verb  have  the  same 
form  as  the  root  ?  What  exception  is  there  to  this  rule  ?  376.  How  is  the  present 
active  participle  formed  ?  377.  Which  of  the  compound  tenses  are  formed  by 
combining  the  root  of  the  verb  with  auxiliaries  ?    How  are  the  other  compound 


CHIEF   PABT8   OF   THE   VERB.  131 

formed  by  combining  the  perfect  or  present  participle 
witli  auxiliaries  ;  as,  I  have  ruled,  I  have  been  ruling. 

378.  Chief  Parts  of  the  Verl.—^\\\\\  the  root  and 
tlie  perfect  participle  of  a  verb,  then,  we  can  form  all  its 
compound  tenses.  If,  together  with  these,  we  know  the 
imperfect  indicative  (with  wliich,  except  in  the  verb  he,^ 
the  simple  form  of  the  imperfect  subjunctive  corre- 
sponds) we  can  conjugate  the  verb  throughout. 

The  root,  the  imperfect  indicative,  and  the  perfect 
participle,  are  therefore  called  the  Chief  Parts  of  the 
verb. 

379.  Yerhs  distinguished  as  Regular  and  In^egular. 
— ^The  imperfect  indicative  and  the  perfect  particii)le  of 
most  verbs  are  formed  by  adding  ed  to  the  root.  Thus : 
— Warm,  warm^'C?,  warmt'<^/  laud,  laiid^^/,  IdMded. 

880.  When  ed  is  added,  changes  may  be  required  in  the  root  by  the 
rules  of  spelling  (page  20).  Thus : — Final  e  of  the  root  is  rejected ;  as, 
rule,  rul-ed,  rul-ed. 

When  the  root  is  a  monosyllable  or  is  accented  on  the  la.«»t  syllable,  its 
final  conisonant,  if  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  is  doubled:  as,  stir,  stirRcd, 
etiraed ;  bestir',  bestiraed,  bestiraed. 

Final  y  of  the  root,  if  preceded  by  a  consonant,  is  changed  to  » ;  as, 
ply,  plied,  phed. 

381.  Verbs  that  have  but  one  fonn  for  the  imperfect 
indicative  and  perfect  participle,  made  by  adding  ed  to 
the  root,  are  called  Regular.  Wann,  wanned^  warmed^ 
is  a  regular  verb. 

Verbs  that  have  more  than  one  form  for  the  imper- 
fect indicative  or  perfect  participle,  or  that  do  not  add 
ed  to  the  root  to  form  these  parts,  are  called  Irregular. 

tcii«e«  of  the  active  velce  formed!  378.  With  what  three  parts  grlven  can  we 
ponjutratea  verb  thmaghoatt  What  are  these  three  parts  called  t  879.  How  are 
the  Imperfect  indicative  and  the  perfect  participle  of  most  verbs  formed! 
88a  When  ed  la  added,  what  changes  may  be  required  in  the  root  t  381.  What 
wrbe  are  eaDed  Reirulart  What  verbs  are  Irregalar  t  Give  ezamplee  of  both. 
881  Leam  the  pantag  form. 


132  EREEGULAE   VEEBS. 

Awake^  awoke  or  awaked^  awoke  or  awaked, — he,  was, 
heen, — are  irregular  verbs. 

382.  Parsing. — In  parsing  a  verb,  state  wlietber  it  is 
regular  or  irregular,  and,  if  it  is  irregular,  mention  its 
three  chief  parts,  in  the  following  order : — 

"  Warm  your  hands."  "Warm  is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  in  the  active 
voice,  imperative  mood,  &c. 

"  He  has  been  imprudent."  Has  been  is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb  ; 
from  6e,  was,  been  ;  in  the  indicative  mood,  perfect  tense,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Write  out  or  spell  the  tTiree  cliuf  parts  of  the  following  regular 
verhs^  making,  when  necessary,  the  changes  in  the  root  mentioned  in 
§  380  : — Grant ;  heat ;  tattoo  ;  fan  ;  fawn ;  smile  ;  root ;  rot ; 
hop  ;  hope ;  hoop ;  row ;  ply ;  play ;  extol ;  profit ;  harass ;  hal- 
loo ;  benefit ;  compromit ;  hamper ;  deter  ;  occur  ;  destroy ; 
separate  ;  bury ;  file  ;  fill ;  justify  ;  dismay ;  tremble  ;  complain ; 
saunter ;  journey  ;  command ;  woo  ;  transfer  •  hurrah. 


TABLE    OF    PRIMITIVE    IRREGULAR    VERBS. 

383.  The  chief  parts  of  the  primitive  irregular  verbs 
are  presented  below. 

Derivative  and  compound  verbs  follow  their  primitives,  and  therefore 
they  are  not  given  separately  in  the  Table.  Thus  overtake  and  undertake 
form  their  chief  parts  like  their  primitive  take :  overtake,  overtook,  over- 
taken; undertake,  undertook,  undertaken. 

Some  verbs,  besides  their  irregular  form,  have  a  regular  one  in  ed. 
This  is  denoted  in  the  Table  by  the  letter  R.  Recite  both  forms  in  the 
order  given  in  the  table  •.—Build,  built  or  builded,  built  or  builded. 

A  form  in  italics,  or  a  regular  form  represented  by  an  italic  R,  is  not 
now  in  good  use,  though  once  authorized.  When  there  are  two  forms, 
the  preferable  one  is  placed  first. 

No  mistakes  in  grammar  are  more  frequent  than  those  connected  with 
the  parts  of  irregular  verbs.  This  Table  should  therefore  receive  careful 
attention.  Each  page  of  verbs  with  the  Exercise  at  the  bottom  may  con- 
stitute a  lesson.  After  the  errors  in  the  Exercise  are  corrected,  the  nouns, 
pronouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  may  be  parsed. 


PRIMmVE   lEBEOULAE   VEEB8. 


133 


Root, 
Abide, 
Arise, 
Awake, 
Be, 
Bear 
(carry), 
Bear 


Imperf. 
abode, 

arose,  ariaen. 

awoke,  R.,  awoke, 
was, 
j  bore, 

(  bore, 
(bring  ft>rthX(  bare. 


Ptrf.  Part. 
abode. 


been. 

borne. 


:;i 


born. 


Beat, 

Begin, 

Behold, 

Belay, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Be^ 

Betide, 

Bid, 

Bind, 

Bite, 

Bleed, 

Blend, 


beat, 

(began, 

\  bepin, 

beheld. 


beaten, 
beat 

begun. 


beheld. 
R.,  belaid,    R.,  belaid, 
bent,  R.,      bent,  R. 
bereft,  R.,    bereft,  R. 
besought,/?,  besought,  R. 
bet,  R.,        bet,  R. 
R.,  betidy      R.,  betid. 
bade,  bid,     bidden,  bid. 
bound,         bound, 
bit,  bitten,  bit 

bled,  bled. 

R.,  blent,     R.,  blent. 


Root. 
Blow, 

Break, 

Breed, 

Bring, 

Build, 

Bum, 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Chide, 

Choose, 
Cleave 

(adhere). 
Cleave 

(split), 
Cling, 
aothe,* 
Come, 
Cost, 
Creep, 
Crow, 


Imperf. 

blew, 

broke,  ) 

brake^  S 

bred, 

brought, 

built,  i?., 

R.,  burnt, 

burst, 

bought, 

cast, 

caught,  R 

chid, 

chode, 

chose, 

R.,  clove, 

clave, 

cleft, 

dove, 

clung, 

R.,  clad, 

came, 

cost, 

crept, 

crew,  R., 


Per/.  Part. 
blown. 

broken. 

bred, 
brought 
built,  R. 
R.,  burnt 
burst 
bought 
cast. 
.,  caught,  R. 
chidden, 
chid, 
chosen. 

I  cleaved. 

cleft, 
cloven,  R. 
clung. 
R.,  clad, 
come, 
cost, 
crept 
crowed. 


*  Unclothe  is  regular. 


EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  t>w6«.'— Monroe  was  born  to  the  grave 
on  the  very  day  that  I  was  borne. — The  games  have  began. — You 
must  do  what  he  has  bade  you  do. — The  wind  blowed  hard. — You 
might  have  chose  something  better. — My  friends  have  cloven  to 
me. — She  was  greatly  frightened,  and  her  tongue  cleft  to  the  roof 
of  her  mouth. — He  dumb  to  the  top  of  the  mountain. — John 
oome  to  the  city  yesterday. — She  has  came  on  business. — He  has 
overcame  every  difficulty. 

Conjugate  re-awako ;  upbear ;  bare  (regular) ;  underbid  ;  re- 
build;  underbuy;  overcast;  miscboose;  overcome. 


134 


PRIMITIVE   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


Perf.  Part. 
forgotten, 
!  forgot, 
forgiven, 
forsaken, 
frozen, 
got,  gotten. 
R.,  gilt, 
girt,  R. 
given, 
gone, 
gi-aven,  R. 
ground, 
grown, 
hung,  R.f 
had. 
heard. 
R.,  hoven, 
hewn,  R. 
hidden,  hid. 
hit. 
held, 
kolden.X 
hurt. 

*  Engrave  is  regular. 

t  Hung  is  the  preferable  form,  except  when  suspension  by  the  neck  for  the 
purpose  of  killing  is  meant,  in  which  case  hanged  is  generally  used.  The  meat 
was  hung  up  ;  the  murderer  was  hanged.  Overhang  tabes  the  irregular  forma 
only.  t  Holden  is  still  used  in  law  language ;  as,  "  The  court  was  holdeny 


Boot 

Imperf. 

Per/.  Part. 

Poot. 

Pnperf. 

Cut, 

cut. 

cut. 

Dare 

VUK, 

!■  durst,  R. 

Forget, 

forgot, 

(venture) 

dared. 

Forgive, 

forgave. 

Deal, 

dealt,  E. 

dealt,  P. 

Forsake, 

forsook. 

Dig, 

dug,  P., 

dug,  P. 

Freeze, 

froze. 

Dive, 

R.,  dove, 

dived. 

Get, 

got,  gat. 

Do, 

did. 

done. 

Gild, 

R.,  gilt. 

Draw, 

drew. 

drawn. 

Gird, 

girt,  R., 

Dream, 

R.,  di-eamt,  R.,  dreamt. 

Give, 

gave. 

Drink, 

drank. 

(  dnink, 
drank. 

Go, 

went. 

Grave,* 

graved. 

Drive, 

drove. 

driven. 

Grind, 

ground, 

Dwell, 

dwelt,  R. 

,    dwelt,  R. 

Grow, 

grew. 

Eat, 

ate,  eat. 

eaten,  ^. 

Hang, 

hung,  R.,t 

Fall, 

feU, 

fallen. 

Have, 

had. 

Feed, 

fed. 

fed. 

Hear, 

heard. 

Feel, 

felt. 

felt. 

Heave, 

R.,  hove. 

Fight, 

fought, 

fought. 

Hew, 

hewed. 

Find, 

found, 

found. 

Hide, 

hid, 

Flee, 

fled, 

fled. 

Hit, 

hit, 

Fling, 
Fly, 

flung, 
flew. 

flung. 
flown. 

Hold, 

held,         \ 

Forbear, 

forbore. 

forborne. 

Hurt, 

hurt. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  errors  in  tTie  teris : — The  king  dared  not  sign  the 
warrant. — Brown  durst  Jones  to  wrestle  with  him. — Have  you 
ever  dove  in  a  deep  river? — "Wlio  done  it  ? — "We  done  our  best. — 
He  overdrawed  his  account. — Some  drunk  too  much. — You  have 
overdrove  this  horse ;  you  driv  him  too  fast. — They  fell  five  trees 
yesterday. — Some  evil  has  befell. — The  battle  lasted  till  evening; 
the  enemy  fit  bravely. — The  Nile  had  overflown  its  banks. — I  had 
forebore  pressing  my  claim.— He  may  have  went  to  Texas.— It 
was  engraven  on  my  heart. — We  heared  you  laugh. — Have  you 
hurted  yourself? 


PREJimVE  lEREGULAR   VERBS. 


135 


RooL 

Imperf. 

Per/.  Fori. 

Boot. 

Imperf. 

Per/.  Pari, 

Keep, 

kept. 

kept 

Rap 

rapt, 
rapped, 

rapt,  72. 

Kneel, 

knelt,  R., 

knelt,  R. 

(seize), 

Knit, 

knit,  R., 

knit,  R. 

Read, 

r<^ad, 

rSad. 

Know, 

knew. 

known. 

Beave^ 

r^A 

reft. 

Lade(load),laded, 

laden,  R. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rent. 

Lay, 

laid. 

laid. 

Rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

Lead, 

led, 

led. 

Ride, 

rode, 

ridden,ro<i«. 

Lean, 

R.,ttan/, 

R.,  liant. 

Ring, 

rung,  rang,  rung. 

Leave, 

left, 

left. 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Lend, 

lent. 

lent. 

Rive, 

rived. 

riven,  R. 

Let, 

let, 

let. 

Roast, 

roasted. 

B..,  roast. 

Lie(recUne),lay, 

lain. 

Run, 

ran,  run. 

run. 

Light, 

R.,  m* 

R.,  lit. 

Saw, 

sawed, 

R.,  sawn. 

Lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

Say, 

said. 

said. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

See, 

saw, 

seen. 

Mean, 

meant,  H. 

,  mCant,  /?. 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought. 

Meet, 

met, 

met. 

Seethe, 

R,  sod, 

R.,  sodden. 

Mow, 

mowed. 

R.,  mown. 

Sell, 

sold, 

sold. 

Pay, 

paid, 

paid. 

Send, 

sent, 

sent. 

Pen  (con- 
fine. 

[  pent,  R., 

pent,  R 

Set, 
Shake, 

set, 
shook,  R 

set. 
,  shaken. 

Plead,! 

R.,  ;>/«/, 

R.,/rf«i. 

Shape, 

shaped. 

R.,  shapen. 

Prove,t 

proved. 

R.,  pt-ovcn. 

Shave, 

shaved. 

R.,  shaven. 

Put, 

put, 

put. 

Shear, 

sheared. 

shorn,  R. 

Quit, 

quit,  R., 
M  an  elegant  fl 

quit,  R. 

Shed, 

shed. 

shed. 

•  ObMlete 

)rm.          t  Imp< 

lead  ta  ngnlar.          X  I>ieprove  is  regular. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  verbs : — I  knowcd  you  would  lay  down 
tills  afternoon. — Wliere  have  you  lain  my  purse  ? — My  father  laid 
down  and  took  a  nap. — She  may  have  laid  down. — Hereupon  he 
pent  some  verses,  for  which  he  was  well  rep.iyed. — The  evidence 
in  the  case  of  Robert  White,  impled  with  Godfrey  and  others,  has 
been  disproven. — The  audience  were  wrapt  with  admiration. — He 
rid  very  fast,  and  arrived  before  the  bell  had  rang. — Martha  has 
outran  all  the  rest. — I  seen  him. — I  see  him  do  it  yesterday. 

Conjugate  inlay ;  underlet ;  overlie ;  loose  (regular) ;  remake ; 
demean  (regular) ;  overpay  ;  acquit  (regular) ;  uprise ;  foresee. 


136 


PEIMITIYE   IREEGULAR   VERBS. 


Root. 

Imperf. 

Perf.  Part 

Root. 

Imperf. 

Perf.  Part. 

Shew  {sho\  shewed. 
Shine,          shone,  R 

shewn,  R. 
,    shone,  R. 

Speak, 

spoke, 
spake* 

spoken. 

Shoe, 

shod. 

shod. 

Speed, 

sped,  R., 

sped,  R. 

Shoot, 

shot. 

shot. 

Spend, 

spent. 

spent. 

Show, 

showed, 

shown,  R. 

Spill, 

R.,  spilt, 

R.,  spilt 

Shred, 

shred. 

shred. 

Spin, 

spun,  span,  spun. 

Shrink, 

i  shrunk, 
\  shrank, 

shrunk, 
shrunken. 

Spit, 

spit, 
'spat. 

spit, 
spitten. 

Shut, 

shut. 

shut. 

Split, 

split,  R., 

split,  R. 

Sing, 

sung,  sang,  sung. 

Spread, 

spread, 

spread. 

Sink, 
Sit, 

sunk,  sank,  sunk, 
sat,              sat,  sitten. 

Spring, 

I  sprung,  1 
i  sprang,  f 

sprung. 

Slay, 

slew. 

slain. 

Stand, 

stood. 

stood. 

Sleep, 

slept. 

slept. 

Stave, 

stove,  R., 

stove,  R. 

Slide, 

slid. 

j  slidden, 
\  slid. 

Stay, 
Steal, 

R.,  staid, 
stole. 

R.,  staid, 
stolen. 

slung, 
slang. 

Stick, 

stuck. 

stuck. 

Sling, 

slung. 

Sting, 

stung. 

stung. 

Slink, 

slunk,  ■> 
slank, ) 

slunk. 

Stink, 

f  stunk,) 
1  stank,; 

stunk. 

Slit, 

slit,  R., 

slit,  R. 

Stride, 

strode, 
strid, 

stridden, 

smitten, 
smit.f 

strid. 

Smite, 

smote, 

Strike, 

struck, 

{  struck, 
]  stricken. 

Sow, 

sowed, 

*  Spake  is  stil 

R.,  sown. 

used  in  solemn  ai 

id  poetical  style. 

hEare. 

EXEF 

-CISE. 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  verhs: — Some  horses  are  shoed  every 
month. — Have  you  not  often  shrank  from  your  duty  ? — If  she  had 
sang  louder  and  spoke  more  distinctly,  she  would  have  been  beared 
better. — After  the  vessel  had  sank,  we  set  still  on  the  shore.— The 
duke  set  his  horse  admirably. — David  might  have  smote  Saul  as  he 
laid  asleep. — From  morning  till  night  they  spinned. — The  boat  was 
stoven. — King  Philip  had  stole  away. — Nobody  has  ever  strewn 
roses  in  my  path. — He  must  have  slinged  it  into  the  river. 

Conjugate  gainsay;  forego;  overhear;  undersell;  missend; 
overshoot ;  resow ;  understand ;  strew  (regular) ;  misgive. 


PlUMirrVE   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


137. 


Root. 

Imptrf. 

Per/.  Part. 

Root. 

Imperf. 

Perf.  Part. 

String, 

strung, 

strung. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Strive, 

strove. 

striven,  R. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrust 

Strow, 
Swear, 

strowed, 
(swore,) 

strown,  R. 
sworn. 

Tread, 
Wake, 

trod, 
R.,  woke, 

I  trodden, 
(  trod. 
R.,  woke. 

Sweat, 
Sweep, 

sweat,  R, 
swept, 

sweat,  R, 
swept. 

Wax 

(grow), 

V    waxed, 

R.,  vcaxen. 

SweU, 

swelled. 

R.,  swollen. 

Wear, 

wore. 

worn. 

Swim, 

(  swum, 
(  swam, 

swum. 

Weave, 
Wed, 

wove,  A, 
R.,  w«d, 

woven,  R. 
R.,  wed. 

Swing, 

swung,  1 
stcanff, ) 

swung. 

Weep, 
Wet, 

wept, 
wet,  R., 

wept 
wet,  R. 

Take, 

took. 

taken. 

Win, 

won. 

won. 

Teach, 
Tear, 

taught, 
tore, 

taught, 
torn. 

Wind 
(twine), 

V  wound. 

wound. 

Tell, 

told, 

told. 

Work, 

R.,  wrought,  R.,  wrought 

Think, 

thought. 

thought 

Wriug, 

wrung, 

wrung. 

Thrive, 

throve,  R. 

thriven,  R. 

Write, 

wrote. 

written. 

884.  The  following  verbs,  whose  imperfect  indicative  and  perfect  par- 
Uciple  are  by  some  made  to  end  m  t  (as,  ipelt^  paxt^  mixt),  are  properly 
regular: — 

Smell  Bless  Distress  Snap  Pass  Mix 

Spell  Dress  Oppress  Wrap  Toss  Curse 

Ed^  after  /,  />,  and  »,  is  generally  sounded  like  t,  and  thus  the  irregular 
forms  in  question  have  arisen.     They  are  condemned  by  the  best  authorities. 

Primitive  verbs  not  found  in  the  above  Table  are  regular. 


EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  error*  in  the  verbs : — Several  valuable  horses  were 
hamstringed. — You  have  forswore  yourself. — I  have  learnt  to 
swim,  but  have  never  swam  more  than  a  few  strokes. — You  may 
have  took  pains,  but  this  does  not  look  like  it. — She  says  she  has 
tore  her  dress. — He  writ  a  poem,  and  after  it  was  wrote  throwed 
it  into  the  fire. — lie  who  was  curst  of  men  seemed  to  be  blest  of 
Heaven. — lie  tost  his  head,  and  wrapt  his  cloak  more  closely  about 
him. — I  am  opprest  with  grief  and  distrest  beyond  measure. 

Conjugate  unstring;  mistake;  unteach;  bethink;  overthrow; 
unweave;  outwork;  rewrite;  outstrip;  misspell;  undress. 


138  THE  DEFECTIVES   OUGHT,  BEWABE,    WOULD. 

LESSON  LIV. 

DEFECTIVE    VERBS. 

385.  A  verb  is  said  to  be  Defective  when  some  of  its 
parts  are  wanting.  Tlie  defective  verbs  are  ought^  he- 
ware^  would^  quoth  or  quod^  wit^  wis,  wot,  methinks,  and 
meseems. 

386.  Ought  appears  only  in  the  present  and  imperfect 
of  the  indicative  and  tlie  subjunctive  mood.  It  is  con- 
jugated thus : — 

Pres.  and  Imperf.  Ind.  Pres.  and  Imperf.  Subj. 


1.  I  ought,  We  ought, 

2.  Thou  oughtest,     You  ought, 
8.  He  ought ;  They  ought. 


1.  If  I  ought,         If  we  ought, 

2.  If  thou  ought,  If  you  ought, 

3.  If  he  ought ;     If  they  ought. 


The  two  tenses,  in  each  mood,  have  the  same  form ;  to  tell  which  is 
used  in  a  given  sentence,  look  at  the  other  words,  and  see  whether  present 
or  past  time  is  meant.  "  I  ougJit  [present]  to  write."  "I  ought  [imper- 
fect] to  have  written  yesterday." 

387.  Ought  has  no  participle.  Hence  the  expression  hadn't  ought  is 
wrong ;  correct  it  to  ought  not. 

388.  Beware,  as  if  compounded  of  he  and  ware  (for 
wary),  is  used  only  in  those  tenses  which  in  the  verb  he 
retain  he.    Thus  : — 

IxD.  First  Fu. — I  shall  or  will  6eware ;  thou  shalt  or  wilt  ftcware,  Ac. 
Potential  Pres. — I  may,  can,  must,  or  need  6eware. 
Potential  Imperf. — I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  ftgware 
Subjunctive  Pres. — If  I  ieware ;  if  thou  ieware,  &c. 
Imperative  Pres.,  2nd  person. — ^^eware  thou ;  ieware  you. 
Infinitive  Pres.— To  6eware. 

389.  Would,  as  a  principal  verb,  is  found  only  in  the 
present  and  imperfect  indicative  and  subjunctive.     It 

385.  When  is  a  verb  said  to  be  Defective?  Mention  the  defective  verba 
886.  In  what  tenses  does  ought  appear  ?  Go  through  these  tenses.  How  are  they 
to  be  distinguished  in  a  given  sentence  ?  387.  What  expression  is  condemned,  and 
whj-f  388.  In  what  tenses  only  is  betcare  used?  Mention  these  parts.  389.  In 
what  parts  is  the  principal  verb  would  found  ?    Mention  the  expressions  in  which 


QUOTH,    WIT,  METDINKS,  MESEEMS.  139 

is  rarely  used  except  in  the  expressions  would  God^ 
would  lltaven^  would  to  God^  would  to  Heaven^  I  would 
that,  would  that. 

Woitid  OoJ,  would  Heaven  (as  in  the  sentence,  "Would  God  I  had 
died  for  thee,  0  Absalom  ! "),  mean  Oh  that  it  voere  God's  will !  Oh  that 
Heaven  willed  I  Here  the  verb  toould  is  in  the  subjunctive,  imperfect, 
third,  singular,  and  agrees  respectively  with  God  and  Heaven. —  Woidd  to 
God  and  would  to  Heaven  arc  corrupt  forms  for  would  God  and  toould 
Heaven,  and  should  be  treated  as  such  in  parsing. 

In  the  expressions  /  would  that  and  tcould  t/utt,  woidd  is  equivalent  to 
ifwA,  and  is  found  in  the  indicative,  present,  first,  singular,  agreeing  with  /. 

390.  Quoth  and  quod,  meaning  said,  are  now  obsolete 
except  in  humorous  stylo.  They  are  used  only  in  the 
imperfect  tense,  first  and  third  singular,  and  always 
stand  before  their  subject :  "  quoth  I,"  "  quod  he." 

391.  Wit,  meaning  kfioio,  is  used  only  in  the  present 
infinitive,  in  the  common  expression  to  wit,  which  is 
equivalent  to  namely.  The  kindred  forms,  wis  (imper- 
fect, wiM)  and  wot  (formerly  used  as  both  a  present 
and  an  imperfect),  are  now  obsolete. 

392.  Methinks  and  meseems,  meaning  it  seems  to  7ne, 
are  in  the  indicative,  present,  third,  singular.  Tliey 
are  used  only  in  this  part  and  the  third  singular  of  the 
imperfect  tense, — Tnethouglit,  nieseemed. 

Tliese  verbs  never  admit  of  a  subject ;  and,  from 
their  being  used  in  but  one  person,  they  are  called 
Unipersonal  Verbs.  "  He  stood,  mcthought,  beside 
my  bed."     "  Meseems  I  see  my  murdered  brother." 

In  solemn  style  methinks  becomes  methinketh  ;  and  meseems,  meseemeth. 

it  (c^nerally  appenrs.  Explnin  and  pame  the  expreMions  would  God,  woidd  Heaven, 
What  la  laid  of  the  expreMlon«  wouid  to  God,  trotdd  to  Heaven  J  Parse  irould 
In  the  exprcMiona  /  would  that,  wotUd  that.  390.  What  do  qrwth  An<l  quod  nuaii  f 
To  what  style  do  they  now  belong  T  In  what  tenses  are  fhcy  found  f  How  do 
they  stand  I  391.  What  does  wit  memf  In  what  part  only  is  U  nsedl  What  is 
•aid  of  the  kindrrd  forms  «ei«  and  wot  J  392.  What  do  methinka  and  meaeem* 
meant    Where  alone  are  thoy  found  t    What  are  these  verbs  oalled,«nd  whyf 


140  PARSING   OF   DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 

393.  Parsing. — When  a  verb  is  defective,  state  it 
in  parsing,  in  stead  of  calling  the  verb  regular  or  irregu- 
lar. The  unipersonals  not  having  any  subject,  no  rule 
can  be  given  for  their  agreement. 

Methinks  you  ought  to  heware  of  such  false  friends. 

Methinks  is  a  unipersonal  intransitive  verb,  in  the  indicative  mood, 
present  tense,  third  person,  singular  number ;  admits  of  no  subject. 

Ought  is  a  defective  intransitive  verb,  in  the  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  second  person,  plural  number,  and  agrees  with  its  subject  you : — 
Hule,  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 

To  Beware  is  a  defective  intransitive  veib,  iu  the  infinitive  mood,  present 
tense,  and  limits  the  meaning  of  the  verb  onff/it : — Bule,  A  verb  in  the 
infinitive  is  used  as  a  subject,  or  limits  the  meanmg  of  some  other  word, 
or  stands  independently  in  the  sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  verls  : — "  Beware  of  flat- 
terers," quoth  my  father;  "it  were  better  to  fall  among  pick- 
pockets than  among  them." — "Would  Heaven  all  men  were  hon- 
est!— Thou  oughtest  to  have  discovered,  meseems,  that  riches 
can  not  purchase  true  friends. — We  must  beware  of  the  faults  of 
the  tongue ;  to  wit,  slanderings,  false  witness,  profanity. — Would 
that  Hungary  had  won  her  freedom. — Methought  I  was  wander- 
ing in  Elysium. — If  thou  ought  to  improve  thy  time,  improve  it- 
Israel  would  none  of  me. 


LESSON   LV. 

THE    ADVERB. 


394.  The  Adverb. — The  sixth  part  of  speech  is  the 
Adverb. 

"  We  saw  to-day  a  very  beautiful  sunrise." 
In  this  sentence,  the  verb  saw  is  modified  by  to-day,  telling  when  we 

In  solemn  style,  what  do  meVunks  and  meseems  become  ?    393.  How  is  a  defective 
verb  to  be  parsed  ?    Learn  the  parsing  forms. 

394.  What  is  the  sixth  part  of  8i)eech  ?    In  the  sentence  We  saw  today  a  very 
beautiful  sunrise,  by  what  is  the  verb  saw  modified  f    By  what,  the  adjective  beau- 


ADVERBS.  141 

mm ;  and  the  adjective  beautiful  is  modified  bj  very^  telling  how  beautiful. 
7h-day^  very^  and  words  of  similar  force  used  to  modify  verbs  and  adjcc- 
tiveSf  are  called  Adverbs. 

An  adverb  is  likewise  used  to  modify  another  adverb ;  also,  a  preposi- 
tion ;  also,  an  adjunct^ — that  is,  an  expression  consisting  of  a  preposition, 
its  object,  and  the  words  that  modify  the  latter.  "It  went  considerably 
beyond  my  expectations ; "  the  adverb  considerably  modifies  the  preposi- 
tion beyoud.  "  The  E.squimaux  live  almost  exclusively  on  animal  food ;  " 
the  adverb  almost  modifies  the  adverb  exclusively^  while  the  adverb  exclu- 
tively  modifies  the  adjunct  on  animal  food. 

395.  An  Adverb  is  a  word  expressing  manner,  time, 
place,  degree,  affirmation,  negation,  possibility,  or 
number,  used  to  modify  a  verb,  adjective,  adverb, 
preposition,  adjunct,  or  a  whole  idea. 

Examples  of  adverbs,  arranged  according  to  their 
meaning,  follow : — 

1.  Manner. — Hotof  Thus^  «o,  icell,  ill,  toe/ether,  somehoto,  anyhow^ 
otherwise,  lengthicise^  slowly,  happily,  and  most  other  words  ending  in  Aow, 
wise,  and  ly. 

2.  Time. —  Whenf  TJien,  now,  immediately,  forthwith,  already,  for- 
merly,  to-4ay,  yesterday,  to-morrow,  soon,  lately,  early,  daily ^  seldom,  often, 
ever,  always,  &c. 

8.  Place. —  Wltcref  Here,  there  (and  most  of  their  compounds,  aa 
wherever,  herein,  thereabouts,  &c.),  whither,  hither,  thither,  whence,  hence, 
thenee,  away,  off,  far,  up,  down,  aboard,  ashore,  homewards,  and  most 
Other  words  ending  in  wards. 

4.  Degree. — Much,  little,  very,  exceedingly,  greatly,  quite,  enough, 
equally,  scarcely,  nearly,  almost. — Adverbs  that  modify  other  adverbs  or 
ac^ectives  generally  express  degree. 

6.  ArriRMATiON. —  Yea,  ay,  certainly,  truly,  indeed,  doubtless,  amtn. 

6.  Negation. — No,  nay,  not,  nowise,  nohow,  never. 

1.  PoauitxuTT. — Perhaps^  perchance,  maybe,  possibly,  haply, 

8.  Number. — Ftrst  (which  is  preferable  to  firstly),  secondly,  thirdly, 
&C. ;  once,  twice,  thrice. 

396.  Adverbs  of  Manner. — Adverbs  of  manner  are 

lifnt  1  What  «r«  to-day  and  very  called  t  What  else  besides  verbs  and  adjectives 
te  an  adverb  used  to  modify  f  Give  example*.  895.  DCflne  an  Adverb.  Give  ex- 
amplea  of  advert)*  of  manner.  Of  time.  Of  place.  Of  degree.  Of  afBrmation. 
OflMffiUon.    Of  doubt.    Of  number.    890.  Wbloh  of  theee  are  the  most  numerous  t 


142  ADVERBS. 

the  most  numerous.  Many  of  them  are  formed  from 
adjectives  bj  adding  the  suffix  Zy,  meaning  in  a  man- 
ner. Thus,  from  kude,  rudely^  in  a  rude  manner ; 
from  SIMPLE,  simjyly^  in  a  simple  manner. 

397.  Observe  that  words  ending  in  ly^  particularly  those  formed  from 
nouns,  are  not  always  adverbs.  Some  are  adjectives  only ;  as,  holy^  scaly. 
Others  are  genei'ally  adjectives,  though  sometimes  adverbs;  as,  the  manly 
virtues,  kingly  sway,  godly  men,  daily  prayers,  deadly  hatred, — ^he  acted 
manly^  it  occurs  daily^  &c. 

398.  Adverbs  formed  with  the  suffix  ly^  from  adjectives  already  end- 
ing in  ly^  should  be  avoided  as  inharmonious.  For  godlily,  holily^  say  in 
a  godly  manner^  in  a  holy  tnanner. 

399.  Any  word  that  in  a  given  passage  modifies  a 
verb,  adjective,  or  adverb,  is  an  adverb,  though  it  may 
usually  appear  as  some  other  part  of  speech.  Observe 
the  adverbs  in  italics  in  the  following  examples  : — 

To  travel  -post  (commonly  a  noun) ; — crack  (commonly  a  noun  or  verb) 
went  the  mast; — click  goes  the  spring; — to  drink  deep  and  talk  loud  (com- 
monly adjectives) ; — 'twas  pausing  (commonly  a  participle)  strange  ; — 
exceeding  great  reward ; — it  was  but  (commonly  a  conjunction)  a  fancy. 

•  400.  "Words  that  generally  appear  as  adverbs  are 
sometimes  used  as  the  names  of  things,  and  then  be- 
come nouns  ;  as,  "  To-morrow  is  uncertain."  "  JSI'ow 
is  the  time  to  repent."  "  Upwards  of  twenty  were 
hurt." 

401.  Words  that  generally  appear  as  adverbs  are 
sometimes  used  to  qualify  the  meaning  of  nouns,  and 
then  become  adjectives ;  as,  an  only  son,  our  home- 
ward journey. 

How  are  many  adverbs  of  manner  formed  ?  397.  As  what  other  part  of  speech  do 
words  ending  in  ly  eometimes  appear  ?  Give  examples.  398.  What  adverbs  of 
manner  should  be  avoided  as  inharmonious  ?  399.  Give  examples  showing  how  a 
word  that  usually  appears  a^  some  other  part  of  speech  may  be  used  as  an  adverb. 
400.  What  part  of  speech  do  words  that  generally  appear  as  adverbs  sometimen 
become?    401.  For  what  are  words  that  generally  appear  as  adverbs  sometimee 


ADVEBBtt.  143 

402.  Caution, — ^Adverbs  must  be  carefully  distin- 
guished from  adjectives.  To  tell  them  apart,  see  in 
each  case  to  what  the  word  in  question  relates.  K  it 
relates  to  a  noun,  it  is  an  adjective ;  but,  if  it  relates 
to  a  verb,  adjective,  adverb,  preposition,  adjunct,  or 
the  whole  idea,  it  is  an  adverb. 

If  I  say  "  a  loud  noise,"  loud  relates  to  the  noun  not««,  and  is  there- 
fore an  a(^ective.  But,  if  I  say  "  speak  loud,"  loud  relates  to  the  verb 
apeak^  and  is  therefore  an  adverb.     So  in  the  following  examples : — 

Adjectiven. — An  upward  flight;  clSanly  habits;  the  above  rules;  the 
first  fruits ;  Sarah  is  xtcll ;  the  very  man  himself;  he  will  come  to-morrow 
morning;  a /ar  country;  a  t/at7»/ paper  ;  no  mercy. 

Adverbs. — To  fly  upward;  to  live  cUanly\  look  above;  he  spoke 
first ;  Sarah  reads  well ;  very  sour ;  very  handsomely  ;  he  will  come  to- 
morrow ;  to  travel  far ;  it  happens  daily ;  no  longer. 

EXEBCISE. 

Insert  adverbs  of  manner:  Time  flies — .  How — and — Adelaide 
studies!  Your  canary  warbles  — .  The  trees  are  —  loaded  with 
fruit,  and  pay  us  —  for  our  labor.  Marlborough  —  addressed  his 
men,  and  then  —  led  them  against  the  foe.  The  sleigh-bells  are 
ringing  — .     No  poet  has  written  more  —  than  Milton. 

Insert  adverbs  of  time  or  place : —  and  —  did  Garibaldi  go  ? 
Impostors  are  to  be  found  — .  My  mocking-bird  has  flown  — ; 
will  you  get  me  another  —  ?  — tell  the  truth.  Eartliquakes  — 
occur  in  England.  Franklin  pondered  the  matter  — ,  walking  — • 
and  —  with  his  arms  folded.  Books  are  —  much  better  printed 
than  they  —  were. 

Form  an  adverb  from  each  of  the  following  adjectives,  and  spell 
it : — Rude  ;  manful ;  obstinate ;  general ;  vicious ;  liberal ;  busy ; 
ancient ;  natural ;  real ;  sure  ;  true  (this  word  and  the  next  four 
reject  final  e  b^ore  the  suffix  ly,  though  it  begins  with  a  consonant) ; 
untrue ;  due ;  undue  ;  whole;  feeble  (see  Rule  III., p.  20)  ;  noble; 
amiable ;  terrible ;  agreeable ;  inseparable ;  passable ;  irresistible ; 

fiMd  I  What  do  they  then  become  t  Olre  example*.  402.  From  what  moat  ad- 
verba  be  carefully  dieting  uiehed  t  How  may  adjcetlvec  and  adverbe  be  told  apart  I 
DloiArate  tbia^  Olve  otiiar  ezamplee  abowing  the  diflerenoe  between  a4)eaUv« 
aadadvwbft 


144  ADVEEBS   AND   ADJECTIVES. 

vile  (here  le  is  not  preceded  by  a  consonant) ;  stale ;  sole ;  pale ; 
servile  ;  liearty  (see  Rule  VI.,  p.  21)  ;  haughty ;  pretty  ;  handy ; 
dainty ;  easy ;  coy  (here  a  xowel  precedes  final  y)  ;  gay. 


LESSON  LYI. 

ADVERBS     (CONTINUED). 

403.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs  to  he  distinguished  in 
Use. — We  have  seen  in  §  401  that  some  words  may  he 
used  as  both  adjectives  and  adverbs.  Tliere  are  gen- 
erally, however,  distinct  forms  for  these  two  parts  of 
speech,  and  in  that  case  one  must  not  be  used  for  the 
other. 

A  soon  answer ;  the  note  governor.  These  expressions  are  wrong,  be- 
cause the  adverb  soon  is  joined  to  the  noun  answer,  and  the  adverb  now 
to  the  noun  governor.  Substitute  the  adjectives  speedy  and  present :  a 
speedy  answer ;  the  present  governor. 

Lead  is  melted  easier  than  iron.  This  tea  is  uncommon  good.  These 
sentences  are  wrong,  because  the  adjective  easier  is  joined  to  the  verb  is 
melted,  and  the  adjective  uncoinmon  to  the  adjective  good.  Substitute  the 
corresponding  adverbs : — Lead  is  melted  more  easily  than  iron.  This  tea 
is  uncommo7ily  good. 

404.  The  verbs  looTc^  seem,,  appear,  feel,  taste,  smell, 
and  sound,  when  a  quality  of  the  subject  is  to  be  ex- 
pressed, should  be  followed  by  an  adjective  relating  to 
the  subject,  and  not  by  an  adverb ;  as,  "  The  garden 
looks  handsome  [not  handsom,ely\P  "  Eoses  smell  sweet 
[not  sweetly]^ 

405.  Conjunctive  Adverbs. — "Wait   till    I    come." 

403.  What  rule  is  laid  down,  when  there  are  distinct  forms  for  an  adjective  and 
the  corresponding  adverb  ?  Give  examples  of  the  violation  of  this  rule,  and  point 
out  the  errors.  404.  Give  and  illustrate  the  rule  relatmg  to  the  verbs  look,  seem,  Slc 
405.  What  is  the  force  of  till  in  the  sentence  Wait  till  I  come?  What  are  worda 
that  simply  connect  called  ?  What  are  adverbs  that  connect  called  ?  What  worda 
are  moBt  frequently  used  as  conjunctive  adverba  ?    niuBtrate  their  use  in  sentences. 


REMAKK8   ON    ADVERBS.  145 

Here  the  adverb  tUl^  besides  modifying  the  verb  come^ 
connects  two  parts  of  the  sentence, — wait  and  /  conie. 
Words  that  connect  simply,  are  called  Conjunctions ; 
adverbs  that  connect,  are  called  Conjunctive  Adverbs. 
Tlie  words  most  frequently  used  as  conjunctive  ad- 
verbs are  why^  how^  when^  where^  wherefore^  therefore^ 
after^  before^  till. 

Exampiet  of  Conjunctive  Advtrbs. — I  do  not  know  why  I  was  sent, 
how  I  can  cro83  the  river,  tr/i«re  I  am  to  go,  or  when  I  must  return. — Man 
has  reason ;  therefore  he  b  not  a  brute. — Was  Polk  president  before  or 
after  you  were  bom  ? 

406.  Remarks. — We  can  generally  express  the  meaning  of  an  adverb 
with  two  or  more  other  words.  Thus : — They  called  daily  [every  day\ 
Hence  [from  this]  it  follows,  Tlirice  [three  times']  I  warned  him.  He 
answered  briefy  [in  a  brief  manner]. 

Two  or  more  words,  therefore,  taken  together,  sometimes  convey  a 
nngle  adverbial  idea.  The  words  in  question  may  lose  their  individual 
force,  as  in  by  and  by  (presently),  on  hiyh  (above),  as  yet  (hitherto) ;  in 
such  cases,  they  should  be  parsed  together,  as  a  Complex  Adverb.  If  they 
retain  their  individual  force,  they  must  be  parsed  separately.  In  partic- 
ular, in  vain,  at  present,  at  least,  are  combinations  of  a  preposition  and  an 
adjective  relating  to  a  noun  understood ; — in  a  particular  manner,  in  a 
vain  manner,  at  the  present  time,  at  the  least  estimate.  At  length,  at  once, 
in  fine,  on  the  whole,  are  combinations  of  a  preposition  and  a  noun. 

407.  Inside-otU,  upaide-down,  topsy-turvy,  should  be  written  with  the 
hvphen  and  parsed  as  adverbs.  Red-hot,  briyht-yellow,  stone-blind,  kc, 
should  also  be  written  with  the  hyphen.  The  compound  words  thus 
formed,  are  adjectives.  If  the  hyphen  is  omitted,  red,  bright,  and  »tone 
aiodify  the  several  adjectives,  and  are  therefore  adverbs. 

408.  The  adverb  there  generally  means  in  that  place.  Sometimes, 
however,  it  is  used  merely  to  introduce  a  sentence ;  in  which  case  the  verb 
precedes  its  subject.  "  There  was  a  man  sent  from  God,  whose  name  waa 
John." 

40ft.  How  ean  we  generally  ezprem  the  raeantng  of  an  adverb  I  If  the  wordu  thus 
Ukeo  together  Iom  their  Individual  force,  how  should  they  be  parwd  I  How,  If 
they  retain  their  individual  force  I  Explain  the  exprewlona  in  particular,  in 
vain,  «te.  Bzplaio  the  ezpreMlooa  at  length,  at  once,  dto.  407.  How  should  truiV/a. 
OKi,  uptidedown,  topty-hmy  be  written  and  parsed  t  Whnt  Is  said  of  red  hot, 
bnghtyeUow,  ttoneUind,  *«.t    406.  What  doe*  thtrt  generally  maan t    For  what 

7 


146  EXERCISE   ON   ADVEEB8. 

409.  Where^  here^  and  therCj  implying  rest  or  motion  in^  are  used  in 
familiar  style  for  whither,  hither,  and  thither,  implying  motion  towards;  as, 
I  came  here,  he  marched  there. 

410.  WJience^  hence,  thence,  henceforth,  and  thence- 
forth, imply  motion  from.  The  word  from,  therefore, 
sometimes  used  before  them,  is  umiecessary.  If  it  is 
allowed  to  stand  [as,  From  whence  came  ye  ?],  from  is 
a  preposition,  and  whence,  hence,  &c.,  after  it  are  nouns. 

411.  Say  seldom  if  ever  or  seldom  or  never,  not  seldom  or  ever.  "  Sel- 
dom or  never  has  so  great  a  mind  as  Newton's  appeared ;  seldom,  if  ever, 
will  so  great  a  mind  appear  again." 

EXERCISE. 

Select  the  adverbs^  and  tell  what  they  express : — Few  indeed,  nay 
we  may  say  none,  are  perfectly  happy  here. — Even  the  wisest 
man  may  perchance  be  deceived. — You  have  not  studied  quite 
enough  to-day. — Always  think  twice  before  you  speak  once. — 
He  who  lies  abed  late  in  the  morning  loses  far  the  best  part  of  the 
day. — Hope  on,  hope  ever. 

Tell  what  part  of  speech  each  word  in  italics  is: — She  went 
splash,  splash,  right  through  the  mud. — Rising  early,  I  set  out. — 
Early  piety  is  pleasing  to  the  Lord. — Columbus  sailed  west. — The 
wind  is  west. — The  wind  is  from  the  west. — He  drank  too  much. — I 
wondered  much  to  see  the  <>^  horse  so  lively. — "We  drove  off. — To- 
morrow may  never  come. — Since  then  he  has  had  money  enough, 
— She  conducted  affairs  skilfully  enough. — Do  the  wicked  ever 
think  of  a  hereafter  f — Hereafter  we  will  live  apart. 

Correct,  and  give  the  reasons : — Never  answer  surlily  (§  398). — 
We  should  try  to  live  godlily. — I  like  to  see  persons  move  about 
livelily. — The  seldom  rainbow  (§  403)  paints  the  sky. — The  once 
king  became  a  beggar. — My  heretofore  life  has  been  full  of  errors. 
— The  moon  looks  very  brightly. — Your  flute  sounds  sweetly. — 
They  rise  successive. — Do  not  think  too  high  of  yourself. — How 
foolish  William  behaved ! — He  spoke  briefer  than  I  supposed  he 
would. — Wellington  was  seldom  or  ever  defeated  in  battle. 

purpose  is  it  eometiraes  used  ?  409,  For  what  words  are  where,  here.,  and  there  UBed 
In  familiar  style?  410.  What  is  said  of  the  use  of  from  hefore  tcAence,  hene« 
thence,  &o.  ?    411.  What  should  we  say  in  stead  of  fteldom  or  ever  7 


BEOULAB  AND  ISREOULAB  COMPARISON.  147 

LESSON  LYII. 

COMPARISON   AND   CONSTRUCTION   OP  ADVERBS. 

412.  Comparison  of  Advekbs. — Adverbs  are  inde- 
clinable ;  but  a  few,  of  one  or  fwo  syllables,  are  com- 
pared, like  adjectives. 

413.  Tlie  comparative  degree  is  regularly  formed  by 
adding  er  to  the  positive  ;  and  the  superlative,  by  adding 
est.    Thus : — 

Pot,  Comp,  Sup.  Pot.  Comp.  Sup. 

Late,  later,  latest         I      Early,         earlier,         earliest 

Fast,         faster,  fastest      |      Often,        oftener,       ofleneet 

414.  Old  writers  compare  some  of  the  adverbs  ending  in  /y.  Milton 
nses  the  words  plainlier,  rightlier^  firmlier ;  and  in  Shakspeare  we  even 
find  easiliest.  Such  forms  are  now  out  of  use ;  we  say  more  plainly^  more 
rightly  y  more  firmly ^  most  easily. 

415.  The  following  adverbs  are  irregular  in  their 
comparison : — 


Pos. 

Comp. 

Sup, 

P09. 

Comp. 

Sup, 

Badly,  Ul, 

worse. 

worst 

Much, 

more. 

most 

Well, 

better. 

best 

Far, 

fiarther. 

farthest 

LitUe, 

less. 

least 

Forth, 

further. 

furthest 

416.  More  is  the  adverb  used  to  give  the  force  of  the  comparative 
degree,  and  most  to  give  the  force  of  the  superlative,  to  adjectives  that  can 
not  be  compared.  These  words  may  be  used  with  the  same  force  before 
many  adverbs,  particularly  those  of  manner;  as,  more  gracefully,  ntost 
gracefully ;  more  frequently^  moti  frequently.  An  adverb,  however,  is  not 
•aid  to  be  compared,  unless  it  takes  «r  and  est,  or  changes  its  form  as  in 
the  above  list  of  irregulars. 


412.  IIow  are  aomp  adverb*  varied  f  413.  Bow  are  the  comparative  and  the 
•aperlmtive  decree  regularly  fortncd  t  Compare  some  example*.  414.  W^hat  ad- 
<rerbe  are  eompared  by  old  writcrB  t  What  does  Milton  use  »  What  do  we  now 
oae  in  stead  of  tbeee  forma  f  41S.  Name  and  compare  the  advorl>«  that  are  Irrega- 
larin  thilr  comparison.  416,  For  what  are  more  and  mott  u»edf  To  what  be- 
•ddea  a4}eeUvM  may  they  be  Joined  t    When  only  la  an  adverb  aald  to  ba  coifr 


148  CONSTKUCTION    OF   ADVERBS. 

417.  CoNSTKTJcnoN  OF  Adverbs. — An  adverb  will 
generally  be  found  to  modify  tbe  meaning  of  a  verb,  an 
adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

418.  The  word  modified  by  an  adverb  may  be  found  by  asking  a  ques- 
tion with  what.  Thus: — "Is  that  sum  hard?  Yes;  very."  Question. 
Very  what  ?  Answer.  Very  hkrd.  The  adverb  very  relates  to  the  adjec- 
tive hard  understood. 

As  we  have  just  seen,  the  word  that  an  adverb  modifies  may  be  under- 
stood. Other  examples  follow: — "  Up  and  on  them,  my  gallant  boys  [that 
is,  get  up  and  fall  on  them]  ! "  "Away  to  the  ship,  my  men  [that  is,  go 
away]  ! "  Sometimes  in  lively  style  an  adverb  is  joined  to  an  auxiliary 
expressed,  while  the  root  of  the  verb  is  imderstood;  as,  "I'll  thence  to 
Florence  [that  is,  I'll  go  thence]." 

419.  Sometimes  an  adverb  modifies  an  idea  conveyed 
by  the  whole  or  part  of  a  sentence.  In  that  case,  as  it 
bears  no  grammatical  relation  to  any  particular  word, 
we  say  that  it  is  used  independently.  The  adverbs 
oftenest  used  independently  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  Yes  and  no,  used  in  answering  questions;  and  amen,  at  the  end  of 
prayers. 

2.  Forth,  in  the  common  expression  and  so  forth.  Here  the  adverb  so 
modifies  the  adverb /o?*^A,  but  forth  is  used  independently. 

3.  Consequently,  therefore,  and  then,  implying  inference.  "  Lignum 
vitae,  therefore,  will  sink  in  water." 

4.  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  &c.,  introducing  successive  particulars. 

5.  Why  and  well,  used  simply  to  introduce  a  sentence.  "  Why,  I  for- 
got."    "  Well,  he  is  happy  at  last." 

420.  Rule  XY. — An  adverb  relates  to  the  word  or 
words  whose  meaning  it  modifies,  or  stands  independ- 
ently in  the  sentence. 

421.  Parsing. — ^To  parse  an  adverb,  compare  it  and 

pared  ?  417.  What  will  an  adverb  generally  be  found  to  modify  ?  418.  How  may 
the  word  modified  by  an  adverb  be  found  ?  Illustrate  tbig.  Give  other  examples 
showing  that  the  modified  word  may  be  understood.  419.  When  is  an  adverb 
said  to  be  used  independently  ?  Mention  the  adverbs  oftenest  used  independently, 
and  the  circumstances  under  which  they  are  so  used.  420.  Recite  Rule  XV 
421.  How  is  an  adverb  parsed  ?    Learn  the  forms. 


PAB8INO  OF  ADVEBDS.  141) 

state  its  degree,  if  it  can  be  compared  ;  tell  what  it  re- 
lates to  or  state  tliat  it  is  used  independently ;  if  a  con- 
junctive adverb,  tell  what  it  connects  and  what  it 
relates  to ;  finally,  give  Rule  XV. 

By  and  hy  we  sludl  travel  still  more  rapidly. 

By  and  by  is  a  complex  adverb,  and  relates  to  the  verb  shall  travel  ;— 
Rule^  An  adverb  relates  to  the  woixl  or  worda  whose  meaning  it  modifiea, 
or  stands  independently  in  the  sentence. 

Still  is  an  adverb,  and  relates  to  the  adverb  more  : — /?«/e,  An  adverb, 
&c 

More  is  an  adverb;  much,  more,  most;  in  the  comparative  degree,  and 
relates  to  the  adverb  rapidly : — Jiule,  An  adverb,  &c. 

Bapidly  is  an  adverb,  and  relates  to  the  verb  shall  travel : — Rule,  An 
Rdverb,  &c. 

Well,  ril  off  to  Paris,  after  you  leave. 

Well  is  an  adverb,  used  independently  i'—Iiule,  an  adverb,  &c 

Off  is  an  adverb,  and  relates  to  the  verb  trill  go  (the  root  go  being 

understood) : — Rule,  An  adverb,  &c. 

After  is  a  conjunctive  adverb ;  it  connects  Pll  off  to  Paris  and  you  leave, 

and  relates  to  the  verb  leave : — Rule,  An  adverb,  &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Pnrne  the  nonns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  verhs,  and  adverbs: — In 
1545,*  an  Indian,  climbing  an  exceedingly  steep  mountain  in  Bo- 
livia, to  support  himself  the  better,  took  hold  of  a  bush  that 
happened  to  be  growing  just  abovet  where  he  stood.  The  bush 
immediately  came  up  in  his  hand ;  and  its  root,  strangely  enough, 
was  covered  with  a  glittering  dust  This  turned  out  to  bo  silver 
ore,  and  thus  were  accidentidly  discovered  the  celebrated  silver 
mines  of  Potosi,  which  rank  among  tlie  most  valuable  miuenil 
deposits  hitherto  known. — Tunis  now  stands  not  far  from  where 
ancient  Carthage  formerly  stood. — Just  now  there  are  no  wars  or 
rumors  of  wars  anywhere. — Seldom,  if  ever,  has  a  hyena  been 
Umied. — On,  Stanley,  on. 

•  A  noun,  being  the  name  of  «  yo«r. 

t  A  prepoeitlon,  not  an  adverb,  iu  obJ«et  plaet  being  ondentood  \—ju»t  abo9$ 
tthm  plaoel  wkert  he  etood. 


150  PKEPOSITION   AND  ADJUBTCT. 

LESSON  LYIII. 

THE    PREPOSITION 

422.  The  Preposition. — Tlie  seventh  part  of  speech 
is  the  Preposition. 

"Washington  marched  to  Princeton." 
The  relation  between  Washington's  marching  and  Princeton  is  here 
expressed  by  to;   not  from  Princeton,  nor  rowid  Princeton,  nor  past 
Princeton,  but  to  Princeton.     The  words  in  italics  express  each  a  different 
relation,  and  are  called  Prepositions. 

423.  That  term  of  the  relation  which  naturally  follows  the  preposition, 
is  called  its  Object ;  and,  if  it  is  a  noun,  it  is  in  the  objective  case,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  IV.  In  the  above  example,  Princeton  is  the  object  of  the 
preposition  to,  and  is  in  the  objective  case. 

A  preposition  may  also  have  for  its  object  a  pronoun  in  the  objective, 
a  verb  in  the  infinitive,  or  a  participle ;  as,  "  There  is  an  air  of  mystery 
about  himy  "  The  concert  was  about  to  commence.'^  "  The  concert  was 
about  commencing.'''* 

424.  A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
that  a  substantive,  infinitive,  or  participle  bears  to  some 
other  term  in  the  sentence. 

425.  An  Adjimct  is  an  expression  consisting  of  a 
preposition,  its  object,  and  the  words  that  modify  the  lat- 
ter. "  Wellington  was  about  commencing  imjportant  and 
extensive  operations  ;  "  the  words  in  italics  constitute  an 
adjunct. 

426.  List  of  Pkeposiitons. — Tlie  following  list  em- 
braces all  the  prepositions  in  common  use  : — 


422.  What  is  the  seventh  part  of  speech  ?  In  the  sentence  Washington 
marched  to  Princeton,  what  does  the  word  to  express?  What  other  words  might 
be  used,  to  indicate  different  relations  ?  What  are  these  words  called  ?  423.  What 
Is  the  Object  of  a  preposition  ?  What  may  a  preposition  have  for  its  object  ? 
424.  Define  a  Preposition.    425.  Define  an  Adjunct.    426.  Give  as  many  prepo- 


U8T  OF  PBEP08ITION8. 


151 


•» 

at, 

concerning, 

off, 

to, 

abaft. 

athwart, 

despite, 

on, 

touching, 

aboard, 

bating, 

down, 

over. 

toward. 

about, 

before, 

during, 

overthwart, 

towards, 

above, 

behind, 

ere, 

pairt, 

under, 

across, 

below, 

except. 

pending, 

underneath, 

after, 

beneath, 

excepting. 

regarding. 

until, 

against, 

beside, 

for. 

respecting. 

unto, 

along. 

besides, 

from, 

round, 

up. 

amid, 

between, 

in. 

save, 

upon. 

amidst, 

betwixt. 

into. 

since, 

versus, 

among, 

bevond. 

minus. 

through. 

with, 

amongst. 

but, 

notwithstanding,  throughout, 

within. 

around, 

by. 

of. 

tui. 

without. 

427.  Caution. — ^Tlie  words  in  the  above  list  are  not 
prepositions  in  every  sentence,  but  only  when  they  ex- 
press some  relation  and  have  an  object. 

Thus : — "  A  polite  man  would  not  have  burst  out  a  laughing."  The  first 
a  has  no  object,  but  limits  the  meaning  of  the  noun  man ;  it  is  therefore 
an  article.  The  second  a  has  the  participle  laughing  for  its  object,  and  is 
a  preposition. 

428.  Many  of  the  words  in  the  above  list  of  preposi- 
tions, particularly  those  that  denote  place  or  direction, 
are  also  used  as  adverbs. 

If  I  say,  *^  Look  above  this  earth,"  above  has  the  noun  earth  for  its 
object,  and  is  a  preposition.  But  if  I  say,  "  Look  above,"  a6ot'«  has  no 
object ;  it  modifies  the  verb  look,  and  is  therefore  au  adverb. 

429.  Some  of  the  words  in  the  list  of  prepositions 
are  also  used  as  conjunctions, — tliat  is,  to  connect  words 
or  sentences. 

If  I  say,  "  All  but  me  remained,"  but  is  uaed  with  the  force  of  except,  has 
wi*  for  its  object,  and  is  a  preposition.  If  I  say,  "  But  Brutus  is  an  honor- 
able man,"  biU  is  used  without  an  object,  as  a  connective,  and  it  is  there. 


•ItioiM  of  th©  lUt  M  you  c»n  remember.  427.  When  only  are  the  word«  prwented 
In  the  list  prepocitiona  f  Give  tax  example  of  the  uae  of  a  aa  different  pnrta  of 
apeech.  428.  Aa  whai  part  of  apecoh  do  many  of  ttio  worda  In  the  \[»t  of  prrpo- 
aiUooa  appear  t    IUu*trat«  thla.    429.  Aa  what  other  part  of  apeeob  do  they  alao 


152  COMPLEX   PEEPOSmONS. 

fore  a  conjunction.  On  the  other  hand,  hut^  when  equivalent  to  only^  is 
an  adverb ;  as,  "  By,i  [only]  seven  metals  were  known  to  the  ancients," 
Observe  the  diflference  in  the  following  examples : — 

Prepositions. — Charlemagne  flourished  about  the  year  800. — Mercury 
freezes  at  39  degrees  below  zero. — Throw  it  over  the  fence. — Notwithstand- 
ing his  merits,  Schuyler  was  superseded. — Since  the  invention  of  printing, 
books  have  multipUed. — Go  to  your  home,  and  lay  your  throbbing  head  on 
your  pillow. 

Adverbs. — Horsemen  were  seen  riding  about. — Man  wants  but  little 
here  below. — Throw  it  over. — Printing  was  invented,  and  books  have  mul- 
tiplied ever  since. — There  was  now  no  home  for  Roger  Williams  to  go  to^ 
no  pillow  for  him  to  lay  his  head  on. 

Conjunctions. — Oil  is  lighter  than  water,  for  it  floats  on  water. — Not- 
trithstanding  he  was  superseded,  Schuyler  did  all  he  could  for  his  country. 
— Since  you  suspect  me,  I  have  nothing  to  say. 

430.  Complex  Prepositions. — ^Two  prepositions  are 
sometimes  used  to  express  a  compound  relation.  In 
that  case,  take  them  together  in  parsing,  and  call  them 
a  Complex  Preposition.  "  The  Germans  came  ^rom 
heyond  the  Phine ; "  from  heyond  is  a  complex  prepo- 
sition, showing  the  relation  between  came  and  Rhine. 

From  unites  with  various  other  prepositions,  to  form  a  complex  prepo- 
sition; SLSyfrom  aboard^  from  above^from  loit/iin,  &c.  Besides  these,  we 
have  according  tOy  contrary  tOy  as  to,  as  for,  because  of  instead  of  off  of 
9ut  of  over  against^  &c. 

EXEECISE. 

Supply  prepositions^  and  tell  the  object  of  each  ;  parse  the  ad- 
verbs:  Elizabeth,  daughter  —  Henry  YIII.,  was  born  —  Green- 
wich Palace,  not  far  —  London ;  she  succeeded  —  the  throne  -^ 
the  year  1558.  —  her  faults  as  a  woman,  but  one  opinion  is  en- 
tertained—  her  as  a  queen;  few  British  sovereigns  —  or  —  her 
time  have  displayed  greater  ability.  The  Danube  flows  —  Austria 
and  Turkey,  and  empties  —  the  Black  Sea ;  it  has  several  large 
cities  —  its  banks.    Do  your  duty  —  fear.    As  we  sailed  —  the 

appear  ?  Give  an  example.  Give  an  example  of  the  use  of  the  same  word  in  dif- 
ferent sentences  as  preposition  and  adverb ;  as  preposition  and  conjunction. 
430.  What  is  a  Complex  Preposition  f  WTiat  preposition  enters  into  a  number  of 
complex  prepositions  ?    Give  some  examples  into  which/rom  does  not  enter. 


PLACE  OF  TUB   PREPOSITION.  153 

Wand  —  sunset,  I  saw  a  coral  reef  extending  •— the  east,  just  — 
the  surfaoo  of  the  sea.  Wearily  we  plodded  —  sharp  rocka  and  — 
pathless  solitudes. 


LESSON   LIX. 

PREPOSITIONS    (CONTINUED). 

431.  Position. — A  preposition  generally  stands  be- 
fore its  object.  Tlie  word  itself,  pre-position,  means  a 
placing  hefore. 

•432.  The  relatives  (hat  and  a«,  however,  always  precede  the  preposi- 
tion tliat  governs  them ;  as,  "  These  doctrines  were  held  by  those  that  I 
have  spoken  of  [or,  such  a«  I  have  spoken  o/"]." 

In  familiar  style,  the  other  relatives  also,  as  well  as  the  interrogatives, 
precede  the  governing  preposition ;  as,  "  Mr.  Hall,  xchofin  I  called  on  about 
your  business,  will  attend  to  it  to-day."  *'  What  do  you  allude  to  f  \Vhom 
do  you  speak  ofi  " 

438.  In  some  current  phrases  and  in  poetry,  we  occasionally  find  a 
noun  preceding  the  preposition  that  governs  it ;  as,  all  the  world  over ; 
my  tfforti  to  the  contrary  notwitlutanding ;  the  churchyard's  quiet  »od» 
beneath. 

434.  Terms  of  the  Relation. — When  the  terms  of 
the  relation  stand  immediately  before  and  after  the 
preposition,  tl»ey  are  seen  at  once :  when  not,  to  find 
the  former  term,  ask  a  question  with  what  before  the 
preposition;  to  find  the  latter  term,  ask  a  question 
with  what  after  it.  The  answers  to  these  questions  will 
be  the  terms  of  the  relation. 

Find  the  terms  between  which  for  shows  the  relation,  in  the  following 
sentence :  "  For  these  purse-proud  upstarts,  Virtue  herself,  unless  adonied 
with  diamonds,  would  possess  no  charms."     Qufstion.  What  for  tliese 

431.  How  doM  a  prppa«ition  generally  ntand  f  What  is  the  meaning  of  th« 
word  prepoaition  J  432.  What  exception  is  there  to  the  rule  Just  laid  down  t  In 
fkmUlar  style,  what  words  may  precede  the  governing  preiwsilion  t  438.  What 
other  exception  is  noted  t  434.  Wlien  arc  the  terms  between  which  a  pr\>positioa 
flbowa  the  r«iaiion  seen  m  odco  I    When  this  is  not  the  o«m,  how  majr  the  term* 


154  TEBMS    OF   THE   EELATION. 

purse-proud  upstarts?  Atmcer.  Would  possess;  this  is  the  former  term 
of  the  relation. — Would  possess  for  what  ?  Answer.  For  (these)  upstarts  ; 
upstarts  is  the  latter  term  of  the  relation. 

435.  The  former  term  of  the  relation  is  sometimes  understood ;  as, 
"  [Lookingi  on  the  whole,  I  prefer  spring." 

436.  The  latter  tei-m  of  the  relation  is  sometimes  understood;  as, 
*'  Samson  is  the  strongest  man  \that~^  we  read  of  in  history." 

437.  The  preposition  itself  is  sometimes  imderstood;  as,  "Throw  \t6\ 
the  dog  a  bone."  "He  was  like  [<o]  his  father."  "Germantown  is  near 
[tol  Philadelphia." 

438.  "When  two  relations  subsist  between  the  terms, 
two  prepositions  connected  by  a  conjunction  and  having 
a  common  object  may  be  used. 

Thus :  "  Collector  of  taxes  in  and  for  the  county  of  Westchester."  In 
shows  one  relation  between  collector  and  county^  and /or  another;  county 
is  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  prepositions  in  and /or. 

439.  When  the  relation  extends  to  several  things,  a 
preposition  may  have  several  objects,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing sentence : — "  Few  can  form  any  idea  of  the  labors^ 
trials^  and  disappointments,  that  fall  to  the  teacher's  lot." 

440.  A  pre]30sition  with  its  object  often  follows  an 
intransitive  verb ;  as,  "  We  can  not  account  for  some 
things." 

In  some  cases  of  this  kind,  the  verb  and  preposition  taken  together 
come  to  be  regarded  as  a  transitive  verb,  and  as  such  admit  of  a  passive 
form ;  thus,  "  Some  things  can  not  be  accounted  for."  Here  for  is  no 
longer  a  preposition,  for  it  has  no  object,  but  is  part  of  the  transitive  verb 
can  be  accounted  for. 

In  some  cases  a  preposition  is  thus  combined  with  an  intransitive  verb 
without  making  it  transitive;  as,  "  Glory  is  worth  dying  for."  Dying  for 
is  the  present  participle  of  an  intransitive  verb. — Sometimes  a  preposition 


of  the  relation  be  found  ?  IlluBtrate  this.  435.  Give  a  sentence  showing  that  the 
former  term  is  sometimes  nnderstood.  436.  In  like  manner  illustrate  the  omission 
of  the  latter  term.  437.  Finally,  what  is  sometimes  understood  ?  438.  When  two 
relations  subsist  between  the  terms,  what  may  be  used?  Give  an  example. 
439.  When  may  a  preposition  have  several  objects  ?  440.  What  does  a  preposition 
with  its  object  often  follow?  Show  how  the  verb  and  preposition  are  sometimes 
thrown  into  the  paaaive  form     Give  an  example  in  which  the  verb  is  not  made 


PAR8IN0   OF  PREPOSITIONS.  155 

ia  combined  in  tiiis  way  with  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice;  as, 
"  I  have  more  time  tlian  I  know  what  to  do  with."  To  do  with  is  a  trans- 
itive verb,  governing  the  interrogative  pronoun  xchai  in  the  objective  eaac. 

441.  In  lilie  manner,  the  prepositions /or  and  of  enter  into  certain 
comi>ound  adjectives;  as,  uncared-for^  unsought-for,  unheard-of  un- 
thought-of.  Connect  the  parts  of  such  compounds  with  the  hyphen,  and 
parse  as  common  adjectives. 

442.  To  in  the  infinitive  mood  is  not  a  preposition,  but  part  of  the  verb. 
In  parsing,  it  must  be  taken  with  the  rest  of  the  verb,  as  shown  in  §  297. 

443.  Rule  XVI. — A  preposition  shows  the  relation 
tliat  a  substantive,  infinitive,  or  participle,  bears  to 
some  other  word  or  words  in  the  sentence. 

444.  Parsing. — To  parse  a  preposition,  mention  the 
terms  between  which  it  shows  the  relation,  and  give 
RuleXVI.    Thus:— 

Out  of  regard  for  a  friend  I  had  been  so  much  at- 
tached tOy  I  overlooked  his  reflections  on  my  veracity 
and  honor. 

Out  of  is  a  complex  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  the 
noun  rrgard,  which  is  its  object,  and  the  verb  overlooked: — Rule,  A  prepo- 
sition shows  the  rohtion  that  a  substantive,  infinitive,  or  participle,  bears 
to  some  other  wora  or  words  in  the  sentence. 

For  is  a  prcpos'ion,  and  shows  the  relation  between  the  noun^^nrf, 
which  is  its  object,  ai»d  the  noun  regard: — Rule,  A  preposition,  &c. 

To  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  the  relative  pro- 
noun that  understood,  which  is  its  object,  and  the  adjective  attached: — 
Rule,  A  preposition,  Ac. 

On  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  the  nouns  vetacity 
and  honor,  which  are  iU  objects,  and  the  noun  rejections : — Rul4^  A  prep- 
OBition,  iic. 

EXERCISE. 

Pane  the  adjectites^  verbs^  adterhs^  and  prfpositi&ns : — Tlie 
times  are  sadlj  out  of  joint.—"  Early  to  bed  and  early  to  rise," 

tmnwitfre.  With  what  kind  of  a  verb  is  »  preposition  •ometlme*  thn«  combined  f 
441.  How  are  aomp  compound  adjectives  formed?  How  should  they  bo  wrttenl 
443.  How  ia  fo  in  tho  tnflnltivc  mood  to  bo  loolced  upon  and  parsed  t  443.  Recito 
Role  XVI.    444.  IIow  ia  a  prcpoaition  parted  t    Learn  the  fbrm. 


156 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


is  a  maxim  which  it  would  be  well  for  all  persons  without  excep- 
tion to  act  upon. — Stephen  fell  off  the  bridge  into  the  river,  but 
succeeded  in  getting  out  safe,  minus  his  hat. — Before  the  time 
of  Gutenberg,  books  were  written  in  stead  of  being  printed. — The 
long  wished-for  day  at  length  arrived,  and  was  hailed  on  all  sides 
with  acclamations. — According  to  Cicero,  there  was  a  time  when 
men  wandered  everywhere  through  the  fields  after  the  manner 
of  beasts. — Notwithstanding  your  vaunted  strength,  to  go  a  fish- 
ing and  a  hunting  on  the  same  day  would  be  too  much  for  you. 


LESSON   LX. 


THE    CONJUNCTION 

445.  The  Conjunction. — ^The  eiglith  part  of  speecli 
is  the  Conjunction. 

"  Yet,  if  I  mistake  not,  Virgil  and  Horace  were  Romans." 
In  this  sentence,  and  is  used  to  connect  the  words  Virgil  and  Horace. 
If  is  used  to  connect  the  parts  of  the  sentence,  /  mistake  not  and  Virgil 
and  Horace  were  Romans.  Yet  is  used  to  connect  the  whole  sentence 
with  something  going  before.  And,  if  yet,  and  other  words  used  as  con' 
nectives,  are  called  Conjxmctions.  The  word  conjunction  means  a  joining 
together. 

446.  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words, 
sentences,  or  parts  of  a  sentence. 

447.  List  of  Conjunctions. — ^The  following  list  em- 
braces all  the  conjunctions  in  common  use  : — 


although, 

either, 

neither, 

save. 

then. 

and, 

even. 

nevertheless, 

seeing. 

though, 

as. 

except. 

nor, 

since. 

unless. 

because. 

for, 

notwithstanding, 

so. 

yet, 

both, 

if, 

or. 

than. 

whereas. 

but, 

lest, 

provided. 

that. 

whether. 

445.  What  ie  the  eighth  part  of  speech  ?  Repeat  the  sentence  presented  at  the 
commencement  of  the  lesson.  In  this  sentence,  what  is  and  used  for?  1/7  Yell 
What  are  such  words  called  ?  What  does  the  word  conjunction  mean  ?  446.  De- 
fine  a  Conjunction.    447.  Mention  as  many  of  the  coryuuctions  in  the  list  as  yo« 


REMARKS  ON   OON J  UNCTIONS.  157 

Many  of  the  words  in  the  above  list  are  also  used  as  other  parts  of 
■peech.  They  are  conjunctions  only  when  they  connect  words,  sentences, 
or  parts  of  a  sentence. 

448.  Bothy  either^  neither^  and  that^  standing  for  nouns,  are  adjective 
pronouns.  Used  with  nouns,  to  limit  their  meaning,  they  are  prouom- 
iiial  g(\jectives.  That  is  a  relative  pronoun,  when  equivalent  to  who  or 
which. 

449.  Evtt^  then^  and  note,  are  generally  adverbs.  But  even  is  a  con- 
junction, when  it  introduces  a  repeated  word ;  as,  "  I,  even  I."  Tlien  is  u 
conjunction,  when  it  is  used  as  the  correlative  of  if.  Now  is  a  con- 
junction, when  it  has  no  reference  to  time;  as,  ^^ Now  Barabbas  was  a 
robber." 

460.  Except  and  without  are  conjunctions  only  when  used  (though 
not  elegantly)  for  unless.  BtU^for^  and  since^  as  we  have  seen  in  §  429, 
are  sometimes  adverbs  and  prepositions.  Provided  and  seeing  are  fre- 
quently participles.  So  is  a  conjunction,  only  when  equivalent  to  pro- 
vided; **So  you  leave  me  enough,  you  may  take  what  you  choose."  Or 
in  the  expression  or  ever,  meaning  be/ore,  is  an  adverb ;  "  or  ever  the  silver 
cord  be  loosed." 

451.  As,  representing  a  noun,  after  such,  same,  as  many,  so  many,  €U 
much,  and  so  much,  has  been  already  mentioned  (§  152)  as  a  relative  pro- 
noun. Whpn  as  denotes  degree  and  modiQes  an  adjective  or  adverb  {as 
graceful,  as  gracefully),  it  is  an  adverb.  When  as  denotes  manner  and  at 
the  same  time  connects,  it  is  a  conjunctive  adverb.  When  it  connects 
simply,  it  is  a  conjunction. 

452.  Observe  the  following  examples: — Both  {conj.)  Alexander  and 
Csesar  were  great  conquerors,  and  both  {adj.  pro.)  met  with  an  untimely 
end. — I  will  not  go  without  ( prep.)  you. — I  will  not  go  without  {conj.)  you 
go. — I  would  advise  you  not  to  become  either  {conj.)  a  painter  or  a  sculp- 
tor, seeing  {conj.)  there  is  but  {adv.)  little  encouragement  for  {prep.)  art 
in  Uiis  country. — They  say  that  {conj.)  that  {pro,  adj.)  house  that  {rel.  pro.) 
we  JHst  passed,  is  haunted. — Help  such  as  {rel.  pro.)  need  help. — Good  hu- 
mor spreads  happiness  around,  just  as  {conj.  adv.)  the  sun  sheds  its  light 
on  all. — Some  regard  Milton  as  {conj.)  the  greatest  of  epic  poets. 

can.  When  aIoD«  ar«  the  words  in  the  list  ooi^Janctions  t  448.  As  what  other 
parts  of  speech  do  both,  either,  neither,  and  thai  appear,  and  under  what  ciroum- 
•(ances  I  449.  What  are  even,  then,  and  note,  for  the  most  part  t  "WTien  is  even  a 
ooiiJanctloD  t  7%enJ  Now  7  460.  When  alone  are  escept  and  without  conjuno- 
Cloos  t  As  what,  beeldes  conjanctions,  do  b%a,  for,  and  since  appear  t  What  do 
w«  frequently  flnd  prwtded  and  teeing  J  When  is  so  a  conjunction  t  What  Is  or 
Id  tb«  ezprwaioo  or  tttr  7  461.  When  is  a«  a  relative  f  When,  an  adverb  t  When, 
a  eoi\)uoetlve  adverb  I     When,  a  ronjunction  t    452.  Give  exainplea  showing  these 


158  PARSING   OF   CONJUNCTIONS. 

453.  Two  conjunctions,  connecting  different  things,  may  stand  together; 
as,  "  But,  if  it  rains,  I  will  remain."  Here  hut  connects  the  whole  sen- 
tence with  something  going  before  ;  if  connects  two  parts  of  the  sentence, 
it  rains  and  /  vjill  remain. 

454.  Complex  Conjunctions. — Sentences  and  parts 
of  sentences  are  sometimes  connected  bj  two  or  three 
words,  which  must  be  taken  together  in  parsing  and 
called  a  Complex  Conjunction. 

The  complex  conjunctions  in  most  common  use  are 
inasmuch  as  ^forasmuch  as,  as  well,  a^  well  as,  notwith- 
standing that,  except  that,  as  if,  as  though  (often  inele- 
gantly used  for  as  if),  and  for  all  (when  equivalent  to 
although). 

455.  Remember  that  words  must  not  be  taken  together  and  parsed  as 
a  complex  adverb,  preposition,  or  conjunction,  if  they  retain  their  individ- 
ual force  and  can  be  parsed  separately. 

456.  KuLE  XYII. — ^A  conjunction  connects  words, 
sentences,  or  parts  of  a  sentence. 

457.  Parsing. — To  parse  a  conjunction,  mention 
what  it  connects,  and  give  Rule  XYII.    Thus  : — 

J^or  all  our  country  is  so  young,  it  has  fostered  edu- 
cation and  produced  hoth  authors  and  artists  of  distin- 
guished merit. 

For  all  is  a  complex  conjunction,  and  connects  the  two  parts  of  the 
sentence,  our  country  is  so  young  and  it  has  fostered  education  and  pro- 
duced both  authors  and  artists  of  distinguished  merit : — JRule,  A  conjunc- 
tion connects  words,  sentences,  or  parts  of  a  sentence. 

And  is  a  conjunction,  and  connects  two  parts  of  the  sentence,  it  has 
fostered  education  and  produced  both  authors  and  artists  of  distinguished 
merit : — Rule^  A  conjunction,  &c. 

Both  and  and  are  conjunctions,  and  jointly  connect  the  words  authors 
and  artists: — Bute,  A  conjunction,  &c. 

words  aB  different  parts  of  speech.  463.  Give  an  example  of  two  conjanctions 
standing  together.  454.  What  is  a  Complex  Conjunction?  Mention  the  most 
common  complex  conjunctions.  455.  When  alone  may  words  be  parsed  together 
as  a  complex  adverb,  &c.  ?  456.  Recite  Rule  XVII.  457.  Learn  the  parsiBg 
forms. 


INTEEJECnONS.  159 

SZBBCISE. 
Pane  each  xeord: — Except  the  Lord  build  the  house,  they  labor 
In  vain  that  build  it. — Cromwell  was  either  a  very  devout  and  coii- 
Bcientious  man  or  a  great  hypocrite. — If  an  erring  man  repents, 
treat  him  the  some  as  ever. — Such  achievements  as  make  a  man 
immortal  are  seldom  performed,  nor  do  opportunities  for  perform- 
ing them  frequently  occur. — Charles  I.  lost  his  life,  as  well  as  his 
crown,  by  his  own  infatuation,  as  it  were. — As  for  Mohammed,  we 
are  at  a  loss  to  decide  whether  he  was  an  ini])ostor  or  a  fanatic,  or 
a  little  of  both. — It  is  said  that  no  other  plant  produces  so  much 
DQtriment  in  a  given  space  of  ground  as  the  banana. 


LESSON  LXI. 

THE    INTERJECTION. 

458.  The  Interjection. — The  ninth  and  last  part  of 
speech  is  the  Interjection. 

"AH  aim  at  happiness;  but  alas!  few  hit  the  mark.'* 
Here  the  exclamation  ala^y  expressing  sorrow,  is  thrown  into  the  sen- 
tence without  any  grammatical  relation  to  the  other  words.  Ala»  and 
similar  words  used  independently  to  denote  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion 
of  the  mind,  are  called  Interjections. — Interjections,  as  their  name  denotes, 
may  be  thrown  in  bfttceen  connected  parts  of  discourse,  but  aie  generally 
found  at  the  commencement  of  a  sentence,  and  sometimes  even  stand  alone. 

459.  An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  independently  of 
grammatical  relations,  to  express  some  strong  or  sudden 
emotion  of  the  mind. 

460.  List  of  Interjections. — The  ]>rincipal  interjec- 
tions are  given  below,  arranged  according  to  the  emo- 
tion they  express. 

1.  Exultation.     Ah !  aha  !  hey !  hejday  !  hurrah !  huzza ! 

2.  Sorrow.     Ah !  oh !  alas !  alack !  lackaday  !  welladay ! 


468.  WbAt  t«  the  ninth  p«rt  of  ipeeeh  f  In  the  Mnt^nee  Alt  aim  at  happiw*  -, 
kut  alat .'  /fit  hit  the  mark,  what  doe*  ala*  rxpresit,  and  how  la  it  as«<i  t  Whnt  are 
atiw  a'ld  word*  ■imllarly  used,  called  t  Where  do  int«-rJ<>ctlona  generally  »taodf 
4Mi  DeAo*  aa  IaUrl«otioii.    40a  Mention  th«  dlS'creut  emutlooa  ezpreMed  bj  lOr 


160  INTEBJECnONS. 

8.  Wotider.     Ha!  hah!  indeed!  strange !  what !  hoity-toity!  zounds! 

4.  Approval.    Bravo!  well-done! 

6.  Contempt^  aversion.     Faugh!  fie!  foh!  fudge!  pugh!  pshaw!  tutl 

6.  Weariness.     Heigh-ho ! 

*I.  MerHment.     Ha,  ha,  ha !  (an  imitation  of  the  sound  of  laughter). 

8.  Desire  to  drive  aioay.     Aroynt!  avaunt!  begone!  ofif!  shoo! 

9.  Desire  to  address  or  salute.     O,  hail !  all-hail !  welcome ! 

10.  Desire  for  one's  welfare  on  taking  leave.     Adieu!  farewell!  good-by! 

11.  Desire  for  attention.     Ho !  soho !  what  ho !  hallo !  ahoy  !  lo !  hark! 

1 2.  Desire  for  silence.     Hist !  whist !  hush !  mum ! 

13.  Desire  to  stop  or  interrupt  another.     Avast !  hold !  soft ! 

14.  De.sire  for  information.    Eh  ?  hey  ? 

461.  Interjections  are  generally  followed,  as  in  the 
above  list,  by  the  exclamation-point  (]).  J^h  and  hei/, 
implying  a  question,  are  followed  by  the  interrogation- 
point  (?).   "  You  meant  to  deceive  me,  hey  [that  is,  did 

you]V' 

462.  0  and  oh  are  different  words.  O,  always  a  capital,  is  used  in 
addressing  or  invoking,  and  is  not  usually  followed  by  the  exclamation- 
point.  OA,  which  commences  with  a  small  letter  except  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence,  expresses  sorrow,  wonder,  or  some  other  strong  emotion,  and 
is  generally  followed  by  the  exclamation-point. 

463.  Words  that  commonly  appear  as  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  or 
adverbs,  are  sometimes  used  independently  as  exclamations,  under  the 
influence  of  emotion ;  as,  heavens  !  monstroics  !  see  !  so !  They  thus  be- 
come interjections.  Or,  we  may  regard  them  as  bearing  grammatical 
relations  to  other  words  understood,  and,  supplying  what  is  necessary, 
still  treat  them  as  nouns,  adjectives,  &c.  Thus,  we  may  parse  monstroiik 
as  an  adjective  relating  to  it  understood  [it  is  monstrous .'] ;  and  so  as  an 
adverb  relating  to  can  be  imderstood  [can  it  be  so !]. 

464r.  Construction. — As  interjections  have  no  gram- 
matical relations,  no  rule  is  needed  in  parsing  them. 
They  neither  govern  nor  are  governed,  neither  agree 
with  other  words  nor  relate  to  them. 


terjections,  and  give  examples  of  each  class.  461.  WTiat  stop  generally  followfl 
Interjections  f  By  what  are  eh  and  hey  followed  ?  462.  Point  out  the  difference 
between  O  and  oh.  463.  What  words  are  sometimes  used  independently  as  excla. 
toations  ?    What  two  modes  of  parslnaf  words  thus  used  are  suggested  f    464.  Why 


PARSING    OF   INTERJECTIONS.  161 

466.  An  interjection  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  case  of  a  substantive 
following  it,  even  though  such  substantive  has  no  grammatical  connection 
with  any  other  word  expressed.  If  the  nominative  follows,  it  is  the  nomina- 
tive indci>cndent  If  the  possessive  or  objective  follows,  it  is  governed  by 
some  word  understood,  and  not  by  the  interjection.  Thus : — "  Oh  unhappy 
we !  "  «ee  is  in  the  nominative  independent.  *'  Oh  my ! "  my  limits  the 
meaning  of  the  noun  lot  understood  [oh  my  hai-d  lot !],  and  is  therefore  in 
tlje  possessive  case.  "  Ah  me ! "  me  is  governed  in  the  objective  case  by 
the  Tcrb  pUy  understood  [Ah !  pity  me  !J — So,  Oh  dear  me  I  Oh  dear  > 
ttuX  ia,  oA  /  pity  dear  me  I 

466.  An  interjection  is  never  limited  by  an  infinitive,  or  used  as  one  of 
the  terms  between  which  a  preposition  shows  the  relation.  Here  again 
words  are  understood.  **  Oh  !  to  be  a  king ! "  that  is.  Oh  !  /  teould  like  to 
be  a  king  ! — *'■  Oh  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness ! "  that  is,  Oh !  / 
lotiff  for  a  lodge. 

467.  Parsing. — To  parse  an  interjection,  simply  stato 
what  emotion  it  implies. 

Hurrah  for  the  hoys  of  '76. 

Hnrrah  is  an  interjection,  implying  exultation. 

For  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  the  noun  hoy*^ 
which  is  its  object,  and  the  verb  »ay  understood  [Hurrah !  tay  I  for  the 
boys  of  '70J : — Ride^  A  preposition,  &c. 

BXERCISE. 

Pant  each  v>ord: — Hallo  there  1  come  along,  each  of  yoa! — 
Alas  1  there  is  nothing  more  sad  than  to  bid  adieu  to  Hope. — Wel- 
come, thou  bright-eyed  Spring  1  all-hail! — Ohl  the  pain,  the  bliss 
of  dying! — Woe  is  me!  Alack!  I  am  undone!— Ship  ahoy! — 
Quick!  up  with  it,  when  I  give  the  word. — Zounds!  what  a  two- 
aud-sixpenny  coat  for  a  well-to-do  gentleman ! 

"Lol  the  poor  Indian,  whose  untutored  mind 
Sees  God  in  clouds,  and  hears  Him  in  the  wind." 

"  Would  I  had  seen  my  dearest  foe  in  Heaven, 
Or  ever  I  had  seen  that  day." 

te  no  rule  needed  in  p*r«ing  Interjeetioniif  466.  With  what  hae  an  Interjection 
nothing  to  do?  Explain  a  nominative,  poeeeMive,  or  objective  ease,  following  an 
InterJeetioD.  4M.  In  what  relation*  lean  interjection  never  uaed t  407.  How  y 
an  lat«4«oUon  parted  f    Learn  the  paraing  form. 


162  A   PRACTICAL   REVIEW. 

LESSON   LXII. 

A    PRACTICAL    REVIEW. 

Correct  the  errors^  and  tell  what  part  of  speech  each  word  is:—- 
Beware  lest  thou  gettest  in  difficulty. — If  Mohammed  were  an 
impostor,  he  acted  his  part  well. — If  I  was  a  king,  I  would  try  to 
rule  wisely. — There  is  no  danger  of  the  world  (see  Utile  XIV.,  p. 
106)  being  overflown  by  a  second  deluge. — I  heard  nothing  of  our 
friends  being  attackt. — The  allies  were  astonisht  at  Napoleon  ar- 
riving so  soon. — If  thou  beest  a  mortal,  speak. — I  {icill  or  shall?) 
enter  college  next  year,  if  nothing  prevents. — Try  me  once  more, 
and  I  {will  or  shall?)  do  better. — Will  I  help  you  to  some  meat? — 
Thou  need  not  to  fear. — She  needs  not  have  revealed  my  intention. 

We  be  going  to  London. — After  we  are  ascended,  we  will 
obtain  a  fine  view. — The  fire  of  revolution  is  being  kindled  through- 
out Europe. — A  society  is  now  being  formed. — Having  not  read 
your  book,  I  can  not  express  an  opinion  on  its  merits. — You  won't 
reach  there  in  time  and  hadn't  ought  to  think  of  starting. — It  is 
time  to  sit  about  works  of  charity. — After  a  hen  has  lain  a  dozen 
eggs,  she  will  set  on  them  if  she  is  permitted. — Very  few  per- 
sons like  to  set  for  a  portrait. — Stocks  have  raised  since  yesterday, 
— A  ledge  of  rock  underlays  the  town. — Palmerston  confest  he  waa 
wrong. 

Time  seems  to  fly  rapider  now  than  it  did  formerly, — Few  sing 
prettier  than  my  cousin. — Your  often  letters  are  my  only  solace. — 
These  paintings  are  arranged  quite  tasteful  and  look  very  prettily. 
— Just  having  arrived,  he  feels  strangely. — Seldom  or  ever  has  a 
more  learned  work  appeared. — Good  Latin  scholars  learn  Italian 
easilier  than  others. — O  !  I  shudder  at  the  remembrance. — Oh 
Virtue,  how  amiable  thou  art! — We  were  attackted  by  pirates,  and 
came  near  being  drownded. 

Write  out  the  three  chief  parts  of  the  following  terhs : — Hoe; 
mutiny;  array;  horrify;  huzza;  loathe;  avow;  blunder;  aver; 
sway;  swop;  swoop;  sweep;  cool;  stun;  stain;  stone;  unclothe; 
engrave ;  uphold ;  disprove;  fix;  misunderstand;  rise;  raise;  sit; 
set,-  flow;  fly;  flee;  lie  (to  utter  falsehood) ;  lie  (to  recline);  lay; 
overlay ;  overlie ;  outbid  ;  recast ;  dare  (to  challenge) ;  withdraw ; 
overfeed;  found;  ungird;  rap  (to  tap);  overrun;  wax  (to  put 
wax  on) ;  weed ;  whet ;  heat. 


DKCLAUAllVh,    INTERROGATIVE   SENTENCES.  163 

LESSON    LXIII. 

SENTENCES   CLASSIFIED   ACCORDING  TO   THEIR  MEANING. 

468.  A  Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as 
makes  complete  sense. 

"  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss."  This  is  a  sentence,  because  it  is 
an  assemblage  of  words  making  complete  sense.  Stone  is  the  grammatical 
siibjoct  (see  §  100).  A  roilint/  stone  is  tlie  logical  subject.  Gathers  no 
moss  is  the  predicate. 

469.  AVe  learned  in  §  227,  that  in  affirming  we  may 
either  declare,  ask,  command,  or  exclaim.  Hence,  as 
regards  their  meaning,  sentences  are  divided  into  four 
classes ;  Declarative,  Interrogative,  Imperative,  and 
Exclamatory. 

470.  A  Declarative  Sentence  is  one  that  declares 
something;  as,  "The  wind  blows." 

Declarative  sentences  are  followed  by  the  period  (.).  All  language, 
whether  written  or  spoken,  is  made  up,  for  the  moet  part,  of  declarative 
sentences. 

471.  An  Interrogative  Sentence  is  one  that  asks  a 
question ;  as,  *^  Does  the  wind  blow  ? " 

Interrogative  sentences  are  followed  by  the  interrogation-point  (?). 

472.  An  interrogative  sentence  generally  commences  either  with  an 
interrogative  pronoun  {teho^  lohieh,  what)  or  with  an  auxiliary ;  as,  "  Who 
goes  there?  "     "  \V7iich  road  shall  I  take  ?  "     "  Shall  vice  triumph  ?" 

473.  A  sentence  which  asserts  that  a  question  is  asked,  is  declarative, 
not  interrogative ;  as,  "  They  asked  me  what  I  said." 

474.  An  Imperative  Sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a 
command,  an  exhortation,  an  entreaty,  or  permission, 

408.  Doflne  a  8cnteno«.  Give  an  example.  440.  In  affirmtne,  whnt  may  we 
dol  How,  therefore,  are  tentencee  <llvide<l  t  470.  Define  a  Dcclarftlivo  Sentence. 
By  what  are  declarative  Motcnces  followed  t  Of  what  is  all  langtuige  nioetty  mad« 
npf  471.  D«>Ane  an  InterroKativo  Sentence.  By  what  are  interrofcmtlT*  aentAneea 
followed  I  472.  With  what  do  they  generally  commence  t  478.  What  kind  of  a 
•entanoe  la  one  whioh  aaaerta  that  a  qooatioD  la  aakod  f    474.  Define  an  ImperatlT* 


164:  IMPERATIVE,   EXCLAMATORY    SENTENCES. 

and  contains  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mood ;  as,  "  Let 
the  wind  blow."  "Turn  from  your  wicked  ways." 
"  Thy  kingdom  come."     "  Go  in  safety." 

Imperative  sentences  are  followed  by  the  period. 
'      475.  Imperative  sentences  often  commence  with  the  verb  let.     Their 
subject  is  generally  understood.     "  Let  [thoic]  the  wind  blow."     "  Turn 
[you]  from  your  wicked  ways." 

476.  A  sentence  expressing  a  command,  &c.,  not  conveyed  by  a  verb 
in  the  imperative  mood,  is  declarative ;  as,  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill."  "  You 
must  depart." 

4YY.  An  Exclamatory  Sentence  is  one  that  exclaims 
something  ;  as,  "  How  the  wind  blows !  " 

Exclamatory  sentences  are  followed  by  the  exclamation-point  (!).  They 
often  commence  with  the  pronominal  adjective  what  or  the  adverb  how  ; 
as,  "  What  a  fearful  spectacle  ! "     "  How  bright  the  stars  are  to-night ! " 

EXERCISE. 

Supply  appropriate  subjects^  so  as  to  form  declarative  sentences: 
— 1.  —  is  made  into  butter  and  cheese.  2.  —  are  raised  in  New 
York.  3.  —  are  sold  by  the  bushel.  4.  In  building  ships,  —  are 
used.  5.  There  are  many  —  in  every  large  city.  6.  —  was  the 
wisest  of  men.    7.  There  was  a  —  in  the  street. 

Compose  imperative  sentences^  containing  the  following  expres- 
sions in  turn ;  point  out  the  grammatical  subject,  the  logical  sub- 
ject, and  the  predicate  of  each : — 1.  Obedience  to  parents.  2.  All 
your  actions.  3.  Wicked  men.  4.  Niagara  Falls.  5.  The  road 
to  ruin.  6.  Be  careful.  7.  Horseback  riding.  8.  To  resist  temp- 
tation. 

Change  first  to  interrogative,  and  then  to  exclamatory  sentences, 
without  altering  the  ten^e  of  the  'verb.  [Thus : — "  Time  is  precious." 
Interrogative.  Is  time  precious?  Exclamatory.  How  precious 
time  is  I]  1.  Almonds  are  produced  abundantly  in  Spain  and 
JItaly.  2.  Death  will  soon  come  to  all.  3.  Many  important  dis- 
coveries have  been  made  by  Americans.    4.  On  a  hot  day,  a 

Sentence.  By  what  are  imperative  sentences  followed  ?  475.  With  what  do  they 
often  commence  ?  476.  What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a  command  but 
does  not  contain  a  verb  in  the  imperative  ?  477.  Define  an  £xclaraatory  Senteuce. 
By  what  are  exclamatory  sentence*  followed?    How  do  they  often  commence  ? 


CX)MPOUin)  AND  SmrLE  SENTENCES.  165 

sliowcr  is  refrcsliing  to  the  whole  vegetable  creation.  6.  The 
ycw-treo  has  a  md  look.  6.  It  is  singular  that  Africa  has  pro- 
duced so  few  great  men.  7.  Fine  velvet  is  made  in  Italy.  8. 
Peter  tlie  Great  did  much  to  elevate  and  civilize  the  Russians. 
9.  America  would  sufter  greatly,  if  her  system  of  free  education 
were  abolished.  10.  Spain  has  declined  much  in  power  and 
imi>ortance  since  the  discovery  of  America. 

Compose  Hte  interrogative  sentencea  containing  interrogative 
pronoun*. 


LESSON  LXIY. 

BENTBNCES   CLASSIFIED   ACCORDING   TO   THEIR   FORM. 

478.  Members. — Some  sentences  can  be  divided  into 
two  or  more  parts  of  equal  rank,  entirely  independent 
of  each  other  in  construction  and  sense.  Such  parts 
are  called  Members.  Every  member  of  a  sentence  has 
its  own  subject  and  predicate. 

479.  Compound  and  Simple  Sentences. — Sentences 
that  can  be  divided  into  two  or  more  members,  are 
called  Compound  Sentences.  Tliose  that  can  not  be  so 
divided,  are  called  Simple  Sentences. 

"  A  man*s  pride  shall  bring  him  low.''  This  sentence  expresses  but 
one  thought,  and  can  not  be  divided  into  two  or  more  members ;  it  is 
therefore  timple.  If  we  join  to  it  another  member,  with  or  without  a  con- 
junction, we  express  two  complete  thoughts  and  make  the  sentence  cotn- 
pound.  Thus  : — *'  A  man's  pride  shall  bring  him  low  ;  but  honor  shall 
uphold  the  humble  in  spirit."  It  will  be  seen  that  each  of  these  two 
members  has  a  subject  and  predicate  of  its  own. 

480.  Adjuncts  and  Clauses. — Members  are  of  equal 
rank  ;  but  sentences,  whether  simple  or  compound,  may 

478.  How  ean  aome  MOtonoM  be  divided  t  What  are  inch  parti  of  leDtenoea 
ealledt  What  doM  every  member  havet  479.  What  are  Compound  Sentenoeet 
What  are  Simple  flentmeeef    Illuetrate  theae  deflniUona.    48a  What  bealdee 


1G6  CLAUSES. 

contain  subordinate  divisions.  TTiese  are  distinguished 
as  Adjuncts  and  Clauses. 

An  Adjunct  has  ah-eadj  been  defined  as  consisting 
of  a  preposition,  its  object,  and  the  words  that  modify 
the  latter. 

A  Clause  is  a  subordinate  division  of  a  sentence,  con- 
taining a  verb  but  not  expressing  a  complete  thought, 
and  generally  used  to  modify  some  leading  word  with 
which  it  is  connected  in  construction. 

481.  Kinds  of  Clauses. — Various  kinds  of  clauses 
occur  in  sentences.  The  most  common  are  distin- 
guished as  Substantive,  Relative,  Participial,  Adverb- 
ial, Causal,  Comparative,  and  Hypothetical. 

482.  A  Substantive  Clause  is  one  that  performs  the 
part  of  a  noun ;  as,  "  To  rule  one's  anger  is  well ;  to 
prevent  it  is  better."  "  The  proposal  that  we  should 
cross  in  hoats  was  at  once  rejected." 

483.  A  Relative  Clause  is  one  that  contains  a  relative 
pronoun  expressed  or  understood  ;  as,  "  There  are  few 
of  whom  it  can  he  said,  '  These  are  truly  happy-  " 
"  Moses  is  the  meekest  man  \tha(\  we  read  of  in  Scrip- 
tureP 

484.  A  Participial  Clause  is  one  that  contains  a  par- 
ticiple ;  as,  "  Figures,  when  well  chosen,  embellish  dis- 
course." 

485.  An  Adverbial  Clause  is  one  that  performs  the 
part  of  an  adverb,  generally  expressing  time,  place,  or 
manner  ;  as,  "  Figures,  when  they  are  well  chosen,  em- 
bellish discourse."  "  To  he  sure,  he  has  written  some 
good  poetry." 

members  may  sentencee  contain  ?  Define  an  Adjunct.  Define  a  Clause.  481.  Enu- 
merate the  kinds  of  clauses  that  most  frequently  occur.  482.  Define  a  Substantive 
Clause.  483.  Define  a  Relative  Clause.  484.  Define  a  Participial  Clause.  485.  De- 
tine  an  Adverbial  Clause.    In  what  respect  does  an  adjunct  resemble  an  adverbial 


CLAUSES.  167 

An  adjunct,  alao,  frequently  expresses  time,  place,  or  manner,  bat  doea 
not,  like  an  adverbial  clause,  contain  a  verb.  "  In  the  world  (adjunct)  w6 
have  tribulation."  '*  While  tee  are  in  the  world  (adverbial  clause),  we  have 
tribulation." 

48C.  A  Causal  Clause  is  one  that  expresses  the  pur- 
pose or  end  for  which  anything  is  or  is  done  ;  as, "  Boys 
go  to  school,  to  study  and  iinprove  tJmr  mijids,''^ 
**  Boys  go  to  school,  iri  order  that  they  may^'^  &c. 

487.  A  Comparative  Clause  is  one  that  contains  as  or 
than  followed  by  the  latter  of  two  terms  compared ; 
as,  "  Virtue  is  as  rare  as  it  is  admiralleP  "  Nothing 
more  impairs  authority  than  a  too  frequent  use  of  it.^^ 

The  verb  of  a  comparative  clause  is  often  understood,  as  in  the  last 
example : — '*  Nothing  more  impaii-s  authority  than  a  too  frequent  use  of  it 
[impairs  it].** 

488.  A  Hypothetical  Clause  is  one  that  expresses  a 
supposition  or  something  conceived  as  possible ;  as, 
^^  If  elephants  were  much  larger,  they  could  not  support 
their  own  weight." 

Though,  Ust,  and  that,  followed  by  the  subjunctive  mood,  and  if  with 
any  mood,  introduce  hypothetical  clauses.  "  Tfwugh  the  wicked  man  heap 
up  silver  as  dust,  he  shall  not  enjoy  it."  *•  Do  not  carry  too  much  sail, 
U$t  you  sink  your  vessel.""  *'  Take  care  that  you  do  not  fall  into  bad  coni' 
pany:* 

489.  The  Base. — Tlie  Base  of  a  sentence  is  the  part 
that  expresses  the  leading  idea.  Like  a  single  word,  it 
may  be  modified  by  an  adjunct  or  clause. 

*•  Do  not  carry  too  much  sail,  lest  you  sink  your  vessel."  The  base  of 
thi«  sentence  is  the  part  that  expresses  the  leading  idea,  do  not  carry  too 
much  sail.  It  is  modified  by  the  hypothetical  clause  lest  you  sink  your 
vessel. 


claoM,  and  In  what  doM  it  differ  t  rtui>trat«  this.  486.  Define  a  Caaanl  CIaqm. 
487.  Define  a  Comparative  ClaoM.  WTiat  it  often  anderalood  in  a  comparativo 
claoM  t  488.  Define  a  Ilypothetleal  Claa«e.  How  are  hTpothetical  olaoMe  Intro* 
ducMlt    48a  What  la  tU  Baa*  of  a  Moteiice  f    How  may  the  baae  be  modified  I 


168  VOCATIVE   EXPRESSIONS. 

490.  YocATivE  Expressions. — ^Tlie  base  of  a  sentence 
may  also  be  modified  by  a  Yocative  Expression,  tLrown 
in  like  an  interjection,  without  modifying  any  particu- 
lar word. 

491.  Among  vocative  Expressions  are  embraced, 

1.  The  name  of  an  object  addressed,  with  its  modi- 
fiers ;  as,  "  Gentlemen  of  the  jury ^  I  will  detain  you  no 
longer." 

2.  A  substantive  used  independently  as  an  exclama- 
tion, with  its  modifiers ;  as,  "  My  native  city,  oh  woe 
unutterable  !  is  in  ruins." 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  what  hind  of  a  sentence  each  is, — whether  simple  or  com- 
pound, whether  declarative,  &c.  If  compound,  specify  the  members. 
Point  out  the  vocative  expressions,  the  adjuncts,  and  clauses;  and 
tell  what  Mud  of  a  clause  each  is  : — How  soon  Love  goes  out  at 
the  gate,  when  Suspicion  enters ! — He  who  receives  a  good  turn 
should  never  forget  it ;  he  who  does  one  should  never  remember 
it. — Will  not  a  true  friend,  like  a  mirror,  discover  to  you  your 
own  defects  ? — My  son,  carry  not  a  sword  in  your  tongue,  to  injure 
another's  reputation. — If  we  did  but  know  it,  to  be  angry  is  to 
revenge  the  fault  of  others  upon  ourselves. — It  is  a  good  thing, 
my  melancholy  friend,  to  laugh  now  and  then ;  and,  if  a  straw 
can  tickle  a  man,  it  is  an  instrument  of  happiness. — Conquering 
wherever  he  went,  Alexander  at  last  believed  himself  invincible. 


JLESSON  LXY. 

STRUCTURE    OF    SENTENCES. 

492.  Compound  Subjects  and  Predicates. — A  sim- 
ple sentence  may  have  a  compound  subject, — that  is, 

(live  an  example.    490.  By  what  else  may  the  baee  be  modified  ?    491.  What  are 
embraced  among  voeative  expreesions  ? 

492.  What  is  meant  by  a  simple  sentence's  having  a  oomponnd  Bubject  ?  What 


OOMPOCND  SENTENCES.  169 

two  or  more  grammatical  subjects  connected  by  a  con- 
junction or  not ;  as,  "  Riches,  worlds,  would  not  induce 
me  to  be  a  king."  "  Alexander  and  Ccesar  were  great 
conquerors." 

A  simple  sentence  may  have  a  compound  predicate, 
— that  is,  one  that  consists  of  two  parts  of  equal  rank  ; 
as,  '^  Alexander  wan  a  great  cofujueror,  yet  mtt  with  an 
unthaely  e7\dP 

A  simple  sentence  may  have  a  compound  subject 
and  a  compound  predicate  ;  as,  "  Alexander  and  Caesar 
were  great  conquerors,  yet  met  with  an  untimely  end." 

The  example  just  given  is  not  a  compound  sentence.  But  we  can 
easily  make  it  so,  by  inserting  a  subject  for  the  last  part  of  the  predicate, 
which  then  becomes  an  independent  member.  "Alexander  and  Ca?sar 
were  great  conquerors,  yet  6o//t  met  with  an  untimely  end."  Observe  that 
no  sentence  is  compound  unless  it  can  be  divided  into  two  parts  of  equal 
rank,  each  expressing  a  complete  thought  and  having  iLs  own  subject  and 
predicate. 

493.  A  verb  is  sometimes  understood  in  the  predicate  of  one  or  more 
of  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence;  as,  "  A  clear  conscience  is  the 
beat  law,  honesty  [m]  the  best  jwlicy,  and  temperance  [i«]  the  best  physic." 

494.  Compound  Sentences. — Tlie  members  of  a  com- 
pound sentence  may  all  be  of  the  same  class,  as  in  the 
last  example.  Tliese  members  are  all  declarative,  and 
tlie  sentence  is  therefore  called  a  Compound  Declara- 
tive Sentence. 

But  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence  sometimes 
belong  to  different  classes  ;  as,  "  Old  age  has  deformi- 
ties enough  of  its  own ;  do  not  add  to  them  the  de- 
formity of  vice."  Here  the  first  member  is  declarative ; 
the  second,  imperative. 

it  me*nt  by  iU  hftTlng  ft  compound  predicate  t  May  it  have  both  f  Give  an  exam- 
ple. Convert  the  example  Just  given  into  a  compound  aentence.  When  only  is  a 
•entence  compound  f  4W.  What  !■  somoUmea  underatood  In  the  predicate  f 
4M.  What  dlflteeooe  eubsiau  In  compound  aeutencea,  aa  regard*  the  elaaa  of  tbvir 
member*  f  What  do  we  eaU  a  Motenoe  wboae  memben  belong  to  different 
8 


170  PRINCIPAL   PAKT8   OF   A   SENTENCE. 

Such  a  sentence  we  call  a  Compound  Sentence  with 
Dissimilar  Members. 

495.  Peincipal  Parts. — Every  simple  sentence  and 
every  member  of  a  compound  sentence  has  at  least  two 
principal  parts, — the  grammatical  subject  and  the  lead- 
ing verb.  "  The  cold  winds  blow."  The  grammatical 
subject  winds  and  the  leading  verb  hloio  are  the  two 
principal  parts. 

Most  sentences  and  members  have  a  third  principal 
part,  besides  the  two  just  mentioned. 

496.  If  the  leading  verb  has  an  object,  this  object 
constitutes  the  thu-d  principal  part.  "  Cold  winds  blow 
up  storms."  Here  are  three  principal  parts, — the  gram- 
matical subject  winds^  the  leading  verb  Uow^  and  the 
object  storms. 

497.  If  the  leading  verb  has  no  object,  it  is  sometimes 
followed  by  a  substantive  referring  to  the  same  person 
or  thing  as  the  grammatical  subject,  and  called  the 
Predicate  Nominative.  Or,  it  may  be  followed  by  an 
adjective  belonging  to  the  grammatical  subject,  and 
called  the  Predicate  Adjective. 

The  predicate  nominative  and  the  predicate  adjective 
constitute  a  third  principal  part  in  sentences  containing 
them. 

•'Washington  was  unanimously  elected  commander-in-chief."  Here 
are  three  principal  parts, — the  grammatical  subject  Washington^  the  lead- 
ing verb  was  elected^  and  the  predicate  nominative  commander-in-chief. 

"  Washington  was  at  all  times  incorruptible."  Here  again  are  three 
principal  parts, — the  grammatical  subject  Wazldngton^  the  leading  verb 
«wi«,  and  the  predicate  adjective  incorruptible. 

claBBesI  495.  How  many  principal  parta  mu8t  every  eimple  sentence  and  every 
member  of  a  compound  sentence  have?  What  are  these  two  principal  parts? 
How  many  priucipal  parts  do  nioi*t  sentences  and  members  have?  496.  In  some 
sentences,  what  constitutes  the  third  principal  part?  497.  What,  in  other  eoa- 
tences  ?    Oive  examplee. 


ANALYSIS   OF   SENTENCES.  171 

EXERCISE. 
Clamify  the  tentencet;  mention  their  principal  parts.  Select 
the  eomjiound  subjects  and  predicates: — Galileo  and  Milton  both 
ended  their  days  in  total  blindness.— Inexhaustible  are  the  beauties 
of  nature ;  what  can  e(|ual  them  in  variety  ? — Miss  Caroline  Uer- 
schel,  sister  of  the  great  astronomer,  aided  her  brother  in  his 
labors,  and  herself  discovered  no  less  than  five  comets. — Love  your 
enemies;  can  anything  be  more  godlike? — Men  and  women  too 
often  play  their  part  in  life  as  if  there  were  no  hereafter. — ^Pekin 
and  Jeddo  are  the  lai^gest  cities  in  Asia. 


LESSON  LXVI. 

ANALYSIS    OP    SENTENCES. 

498.  By  the  Analysis  of  a  sentence  is  meant  the  pro- 
cess of  resolving  it  into  its  simple  parts. 

499.  In  analyzing  a  sentence,  state  its  class ;  select 
its  principal  parts;  tell  by  what  words,  adjuncts,  or 
clauses  each  is  modified,  and  by  what  these  modifiers 
arc  themselves  modified,  resolving  adjuncts  into  the 
words  that  compose  them,  and  clauses  into  their  prin- 
cipal parts  and  modifiers.  If  the  sentence  is  compound, 
treat  each  member  in  turn  as  just  described. 

FoBjra  Of  AKALTSm. 

JTo  one  knew  how  to  use  gold  more  effectually  than 
Philip,  king  of  Macedon. 

A  simple  declarative  sentence. 

The  principal  parts  are  the  grammatical  subject  <m<  and  the  leading 
Terb  ibi«i0: 

The  grammatical  subject  <me  is  modified  by  the  adjective  no. 

The  leading  verb  Arn^io  is  modified  by  the  adverb  Aoto,  which  is  itself 

4M.  What  is  meant  by  the  Analysli  of  a  epnteoce  I  490.  In  analysing  a  len- 
tenoe,  whnt  must  be  dooet  If  tba  Mntenee  ta  compound,  huw  do  you  prooeadi 
Learn  the  forma  of  aoaJyaia. 


172  FORMS   OF   ANALYSIS. 

modified  by  the  infinitive  to  nae.  To  ime  is  modified  by  its  object  gold.,  and 
tlie  adverb  effectually^  which  is  itself  modified  by  the  adverb  more;  and 
tjiore  is  in  turn  modified  by  the  comparative  clause  than  Philip,  king  of 
Maccdon^  connected  with  it  by  the  conjunction  than.  The  principal  parts 
of  this  clause  are  the  grammatical  subject  Philip  and  the  leading  verb  knew 
understood.  The  grammatical  subject  Philip  is  modified  by  the  noun  king 
in  apposition  with  it,  which  is  itself  modified  by  the  adjunct  of  Macedon^ 
consisting  of  the  preposition  of  and  its  object  Macedon. 

When  had  men  comhine^  the  good  must  associate  /  else 
they  will  fall  ^  one  hyone^  anunpitied  sacrifice^  in  a  con- 
temptible struggle, 

A  compound  declarative  sentence.  The  first  member  is  when  had  men 
combine,  the  good  ynust  ansociate.  The  second  member  is  else  tJuy  mil 
fall,  OJie  by  one,  an  unpitied  sacrifice,  in  a  contemptible  struggle. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  first  member  are  the  grammatical  subject  7nen 
understood  and  the  leading  verb  mtist  associate. 

The  grammatical  subject  men  is  modified  by  the  article  the  and  the 
adjective  good. 

The  leading  verb  must  associate  is  modified  by  the  adverbial  clause 
when  bad  men  combine,  connected  with  it  by  the  conjunctive  adverb  when. 
The  principal  parts  of  this  clause  are  its  grammatical  subject  men,  modified 
by  the  adjective  bad,  and  the  leading  verb  combine. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  second  member  ai-e  the  gi*ammatical  subject 
they  and  the  leading  verb  vMl  fall. 

The  grammatical  subject  they  is  modified,  1.  By  the  noun  man  under- 
stood, in  apposition  with  it.  Man  is  modified  by  the  adjective  one,  and 
this  in  turn  by  the  adjunct  by  one,  consisting  of  the  preposition  by  and  the 
adjective  one  modifying  the  noun  man  understood,  the  object  of  the  prep- 
osition. 2.  By  the  noun  sacrifice  in  apposition  with  it,  which  is  modified 
by  the  article  an  and  the  adjective  unpitied. 

The  leading  verb  uoill  fall  is  modified,  1.  By  the  adverb  else.  2.  By  the 
adjunct  in  a  contemptible  struggle,  consisting  of  the  preposition  in  and  its 
object  struggle,  which  is  modified  by  the  article  a  and  the  adjective  con- 
temptible. 

Tell  Tne  with  whom  you  associate^  and  I  will  tell  you 
what  you  are. 

A  compound  sentence  with  dissimilar  members.  The  first  member, 
tell  me  with  whom  you  associate,  is  imperative.  The  second  member,  and 
I  urill  tell  you  wJiat  you  are,  is  declarative. 


FORMS   OF   ANALYSIS.  173 

The  principal  parts  of  the  first  member  are  the  grammatical  subject 
tkou  understood  and  the  leading  verb  tell. 

The  giamniatical  subject  t/tou  has  no  modifiers. 

The  leading  verb  (ell  is  modified,  1.  By  the  adjunct  [to]  me,  consisting 
of  the  preposition  to  understood  and  its  object  me.  2.  By  tlie  clause  viffi 
trhotn  tfoH  asMciate.  The  principal  parts  of  tliis  clause  are  its  grammatical 
subject  /A"',  which  has  no  modifiers,  and  iLs  leading  vcvb  associate^  modified 
bv  llic  adjunct  tcit/i  whom,  consisting  of  the  preposition  voith  and  its  object 
trAow. 

The  second  member  is  connected  with  the  first  by  the  conjunction  and. 
Its  principal  parts  are  the  gramtnatical  subject  /and  the  leading  verb  wiU  tell. 

The  grammatical  subject  /  has  no  modifiers. 

The  leading  verb  mil  tell  is  modificMl,  1.  By  the  adjunct  [to\  yon,  con- 
sisting of  the  preposition  to  understood  and  its  object  you.  2.  By  the 
clause  what  yon  are.  The  principal  parts  of  this  clause  arc  the  grammatical 
subject  you,  the  leading  verb  are,  and  the  predicate  nominative  what, — all 
unmodified. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  according  to  the  aboteform»: — ^The  age  of  chivalry  has 
departed. — Is  not  contentment  a  pearl  of  great  price  ? — The  way 
to  fame,  like  the  way  to  Ileaven,  passes  tbrougli  much  tribulation. 
— The  passage  to  the  East  Indies  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
was  discovered  in  1497,  by  a  Portuguese  navigator. — Omnibuses 
are  said  to  have  originated  in  Paris,  not  long  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century. — Amid  all  thy  pursuits  and  pleasures, 
remember  that  thou  art  mortal. — How  few  persons  know  wliat 
isinglass  is  made  of! — I  do  not  think  you  can  tell  me  what  a  sponge 
is,  can  you  ? — Do  not  wait  to  strike,  till  the  iron  is  hot ;  can  you 
not  make  it  hot  yourself  by  striking? 


LESSON  LXYII. 

ANALYSIS    (CONTINUED) 

500.  Quotations. — ^A  Quotation  is  a  word  or  passage 
taken,  or  represented  as  taken,  from  sonic  writer  or 
speaker. 

601.  One  sentence  is  often  incorporated  in  another  as 

SOO.  Wbat  is  •  Qaot«ftlon  t   Ml.  What  two  modes  are  there  of  iatrodaolof  % 


174  FORMS    OF   ANALYSIS. 

a  quotation.  When  introduced  by  the  conjunction  thaty 
the  quoted  sentence  with  that  forms  a  clause  modifying 
some  leading  word,  and  in  analyzing  must  be  treated 
like  other  clauses.  When  brought  in  without  tliat^  the 
quoted  sentence  generally  modifies  some  preceding  yerl^ 
and  is  itself  to  be  analyzed  like  any  other  sentence. 
502.  Forms  of  Analysis. — Further  models  follow : — 
Socrates^  reinembering  his  wife  Xanthippe^s  temper^ 
called  heauty  "  a  short-lived  tyranny "/  and  is  it  not 
hoth  shoi't-lived  and  a  tyranny? 

A  compound  sentence  with  dissimilar  members.  The  first  member, 
Socrates,  remembering  his  wife  XantJiippe^s  temper,  called  heauty  "a  short- 
lived tyranny,^''  is  declarative.  The  second  member,  and  is  it  not  both 
short-lived  and  a  tyranny,  is  interrogative. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  first  member  are  the  grammatical  subject 
Socrates,  the  leading  verb  called,  and  its  object  beauty. 

The  grammatical  subject  Socrates  is  modified  by  the  participial  clause 
remembering  his  wife  Xanthippe^s  temper.  This  clause  consists  of  the  par- 
ticiple remembering,  and  its  object  temper,  which  is  modified  by  the  pos- 
sessive Xanthippe's ;  and  this  is  modified  by  the  noun  wife  in  apposition 
with  it,  and  this  in  turn  by  the  possessive  his. 

The  leading  verb  called  has  no  modifiers. 

The  object  beauty  is  modified  by  the  noun  tyranny  in  apposition  with 
it,  which  is  itself  modified  by  the  article  a  and  the  adjective  short-lived. 

The  second  member  is  connected  with  the  first  by  the  conjunction  and. 
Its  principal  parts  are  the  grammatical  subject  it,  which  has  no  modifiers ; 
the  leading  verb  is,  modified  by  the  adverb  not ;  and  the  predicate  adjec- 
tive short-lived,  and  the  predicate  nominative  tyranny  (modified  by  the 
article  a),  which  are  connected  by  the  conjunctions  both  and  and. 

The  Spectator  justly  remarJcs  that,  ^'  Had  Cicero  him- 
self pronounced  one  of  his  orations  with  a  blanket  about 
his  shoulders,  more  people  would  have  laughed  at  his 
dress  than  have  admired  his  eloquence,^'* 

A  simple  declarative  sentence. 

qnutation  t    How  are  quoted  Beuteiices  to  be  treated  in  aoalyzing  f    602  Learn  the 
forms. 


F0BM8   OF  ANALYSIS.  175 

The  principal  parte  are  the  grammatical  subject  Spectator  and  the  lead- 
ing verb  remarkf. 

The  grammatical  subject  S/jeetator  Ls  modified  by  the  article  the. 

The  leading  verb  remarks  is  modified,  1.  By  the  advcrh  juxtly.  2.  By 
the  clause  that^  ^^  Had  Cicero  hiinnel/  pronounced  one  of  his  orations,^  &c. 
This  clause  consista  of  a  quoted  sentence  introduced  by  the  conjunction  M(i/. 

The  quoted  sentence  I/ad  Cicero,  &c.,  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

Its  principal  parts  are  the  grammatical  subject  peopie  and  the  leading 
▼erb  Koiild  hai'e  laughed. 

The  grammatical  subject  people  is  modified  by  the  adjective  more^  which 
is  itself  modified  by  the  comparative  clause  than  have  admired  his  eloquence, 
connected  with  it  by  the  conjunction  than.  The  principal  parts  of  this 
clause  are  the  grammatical  subject  people,  the  leading  verb  have  culinired^ 
and  its  object  eloquence,  modified  by  the  possessive  hi». 

The  leading  verb  xooidd  have  laughed  is  modified  by  the  adjunct  at  hifi 
dress^  consisting  of  the  preposition  at  and  its  object  drcs.n,  which  is  modified 
by  the  possessive  his. 

The  base  of  the  quoted  sentence  is  modified  by  the  hypothetical  clause 
had  Cicero  himself  pronounced  one  of  his  orations  nrith  a  blanket  about  his 
$hou!der*.  The  principal  parts  of  this  clause  are  the  grammatical  subject 
Cicero,  the  leading  verb  had  pronounced,  and  its  object  oration  understood. 
The  grammatical  subject  Cicero  is  modified  by  the  pronoun  himself  in  ap- 
position with  it  The  leading  verb  had  pronounced  is  modified  by  the  ad- 
junct with  a  blanket,  consisting  of  the  preposition  with  and  its  object  blayt- 
ket,  which  is  modified,  1.  By  the  article  a.  2.  By  the  adjunct  about  his 
shoulders,  consisting  of  the  preposition  about  and  its  object  shoulders,  which 
is  modified  by  the  possessive  hi*.  The  object  oration  understood  is  modi- 
fied, I.  By  the  adjective  one.  2.  By  the  adjunct  of  his  orations,  consisting 
of  the  preposition  o/*  and  its  object  oralionsy  modified  by  the  possessive  his. 

"  That  creditors  s/toidd  have  better  memories  than 
debtorSy'^^  wittily  observes  Ol  distifiguished  wrttej'y  "  is  iiot 
to  be  vxmdercd  at,^ 

A  simple  decUratire  sentence. 

The  principal  partA  are  the  grammatical  subject  teriter  and  the  leading 
rerb  obterves. 

The  grammatical  subject  writer  is  modified  by  the  article  a  and  the 
M^jectire  dUttnguiMMed. 

The  leading  Tcrb  obmrves  b  modified  by  the  adverb  wUtilif  and  the 
^oted  sentence  thai  credUon  akould  have  better  tHentorie*  than  debtors  m 
not  to  be  womknd  at. 


176 


FORMS    OF   ANALYSIS. 


This  quoted  sentence  is  simple  and  declarative.  Its  principal  parts  are 
the  grammatical  subject,  which  is  the  substantive  clause  that  creditors 
should  have  better  iiiemories  than  debtors^  and  the  leading  verb  is. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  substantive  clause  which  forms  the  gram- 
matical subject  are  its  grammatical  subject  creditors,  which  has  no  modi- 
fiers; the  leading  verb  shmdd  have,  also  unmodified;  and  the  object 
memories,  which  is  modified  by  the  adjective  better,  and  this  is  itself  modi- 
fied by  the  comparative  clause  than  debtors,  connected  with  it  by  the  con- 
junction than.  The  principal  parts  of  this  clause  are  the  grammatical 
subject  debtors  and  the  leading  verb  have  understood. 

The  leading  verb  is  modified  by  the  infinitive  to  be  wondered  at,  and  thia 
is  itself  modified  by  the  adverb  not. 

Thoughtless  inan^  do  not  temperance  and  self-restrairit 
save  you  from  many  evils  and  promote  your  happiness  f 

A  simple  interrogative  sentence. 

The  principal  parts  are  the  grammatical  subjects  temperance  and  self- 
restraint,  the  leading  verbs  do  save  and  promote,  and  the  objects  you  and 
happiness,  belonging  respectively  to  the  leading  verbs  do  save  and  promote. 

The  grammatical  subjects,  temperance  and  self-restraint,  are  connected 
by  the  conjunction  and,  and  have  no  modifiers. 

The  leading  verbs  do  save  and  promote  are  connected  by  the  conjunc- 
tion and,  and  are  both  modified  by  the  adverb  not.  The  leading  verb  do 
save  is  further  modified  by  the  adjunct  from  many  evils,  consisting  of  the 
preposition  fro7n  and  its  object  evils,  which  is  modified  by  the  adjective 
many. 

The  object  you  has  no  modifiers.  The  object  happiness  is  modified  by 
the  possessive  your. 

The  base  of  the  sentence  is  modified  by  the  vocative  expression  thought- 
less man,  consisting  of  man,  the  name  of  an  object  addressed,  and  the 
adjective  thoughtless^  by  which  it  is  modified. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences : — If  I  am  not  mistaken,  the 
best  nutmegs  and  pepper  come  from  Sumatra  and  the  Moluccas. — 
How  utterly  ignorant  of  human  nature  is  lie  who  has  passed  his 
days  in  his  study  alone,  without  mingling  with  the  world ! — Cast 
thy  bread  upon  the  waters ;  for  thou  shalt  find  it  after  many  days. 
— "  What  did  you  do  during  the  summer  ? "  asked  an  ant  of  a 
grasshopper,  who  petitioned  for  food  when  winter  was  about  set- 
ting in.    "I  played  and  sung,"  answered  the  grasshopper.   "Well, 


KLLirsis.  177 

now  dance,"'  was  the  ant^s  response. — The  following  sentence  is 
inscribed  on  Gen.  Putnam^s  tomb-stone :  ''  He  dared  to  lead  where 
any  dared  to  follow." 


LESSON   LXVIII. 

ELLIPSIS. 

603.  Ellipsis. — For  the  sake  of  brevity,  we  often 
omit  words  tliat  are  not  essential  to  the  sense,  but  are 
necessar}'  in  parsing,  to  explain  the  government,  agree- 
ment, or  relation  of  the  words  expressed.  Such  an 
omission  is  called  an  Ellipsis. 

Tlie  words  omitted  are  said  to  be  understood.  In 
parsing,  they  must  be  supplied  as  they  are  needed. 

604.  Examples. — As  ellipses  often  occasion  diffi- 
culty in  parsing,  it  will  be  well  to  attend  to  the  follow- 
ing examples.  They  will  serve  to  explain  certain  com- 
mon constructions  and  others  like  them. 

1.  Ellipsis  of  the  subject  of  a  verb. 

As  regards  the  Cnisades,  they  were  certainly  beneficial  to  Europe. 
[Here  there  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  subject  it,  with  which  the  verb  regards 
agrees  in  the  third  person,  singular  number : — As  it  regards  the  Crusades, 
&c.] 

The  names  of  the  twelve  tribes  were  as  follows.  [In  this  sentence,  as 
is  a  conjunctive  adverb,  and  follows  agrees  with  its  subject  it  understood, 
in  the  third,  singular.  To  make  it  plural, /o//oir,  because  names  is  plural, 
would  be  wrong.] 

As  far  as  [it]  concerns  England,  she  is  a  loser  by  the  bargain. 

Act  as  [it]  seems  l>e8t     Remcml>er  [//iow]  thy  Creator. 

[Whether  /]  Sink  or  swim,  [whether  /]  survive  or  perish,  I  am  for  the 
Declaration.     Do  not  buy  more  coal  than  [ir/m/]  is  needed. 

In  future  ages,  men  may  need  all  the  land  [that]  there  is. 

Will  you  go  or  stay?  [/will]  Stay. 

Our  young  friend  is  more  extravagant  than  [it]  is  good  for  him  [to  be]. 

608.  What  to  meant  by  an  EllipiMst    Wliat  is  said  of  the  word*  omitted  t 
Wbai  meet  be  done  in  pareingf    60i.  Give  examples  of  the  eillpeis  of  the  sttl^)eok 
8* 


178  EXAMPLES   OF   ELLIPSIS. 

2.  Ellipsis  of  the  noun  to  whicli  an  adjective  relates. 

The  honorable  [body]  the  Legislature.     Charles  the  Simple  [kin^]. 

The  virtuous  [perso7is'\  are  happy.  The  professedly  virtuous  [persons] 
are  not  always  really  so.  Even  the  strongest  [perso7is'\  will  sometimes 
faint  by  the  way.  [  Virtuous  being  modified  in  the  second  sentence  by 
the  adverb  professedly^  and  strongest  being  in  the  superlative  degree,  they 
are  evidently  adjectives  relating  to  a  noun  understood,  and  not  themselves 
nouns.] 

To  be  [a]  virtuous  [person]  is  to  be  [a]  happy  [])erson]. 

3.  Ellipsis  of  the  noun  modified  by  a  substantive  in 
the  possessive  case. 

It  is  thine  [thy  business]  to  command. — There  shall  nothing  die  of  all 
that  is  the  children's  [property]  of  Israel. — I  shall  stop  at  Thomson's  [shop], 
to  get  some  paper. 

4.  Ellipsis  of  the  relative. 

Moses  is  the  meekest  man  [that]  we  read  of  in  the  Bible. — It  is  infinite 
wisdom  [that]  orders  all  things  here  below. 

5.  Ellipsis  of  the  antecedent  of  a  relative. 

[Those]  Who  utter  slanders  do  false  witness  bear. — [Him]  Whom  he 
loveth,  he  chasteneth. 

6.  Ellipsis  of  a  verb. 

[Get]  Up  and  [go]  away. — [It  is]  No  matter  what  I  do,  I  can  not  please 
you. — ^Washington  loved  very  few  as  well  as  [he  loved]  La  Fayette. — ^The 
enemy  [being]  at  the  gates,  there  was  no  time  for  delay 

7.  Ellipsis  of  a  preposition. 

The  army  were  ready  to  offer  [to]  Washington  a  crown. — Few  can 
paint  like  [to]  Titian. — Cut  [for]  me  some  bread. — She  sits  [on]  a  horse 
well. — A  great  many  [of]  rogues.     [In  this  expression,  many  is  a  noun.] 

8.  Ellipsis  of  a  conjunction. 

To  the  intent  [that]  ye  may  believe. — ^Were  I  [if  I  were]  there,  I 
should  make  the  attempt. 


of  a  verb.  Give  examples  of  the  ellipsis  of  a  noun  to  which  an  adjective  relatea 
Give  examples  of  the  ellipsis  of  a  noun  mod  iied  by  a  substantive  in  the  possessive 
case.    Give  examples  of  the  ellipsiM  of  the  relative.    Of  the  antecedent  of  a  rela- 


EXERCISE   IN    KLLIPTICAL   PARSING.  179 

505.  In  a  fragmentary  style,  ellipses,  even  of  several 
words,  are  frequent.  Tliis  will  be  seen  in  the  following 
extract  from  one  of  Douglas  Jerrold's  "  Caudle  Curtain 
Lectures,"  which  will  serve  as  an  exercise  in  elliptical 
parsing.  Each  sentence  may  be  analyzed  as  well  as 
parsed. 

MBS.  CAUDLE    DWELLS   ON   CAUDLE's    "  CRUEL   NEOLEOT "   OF   DEB  ON 
BOABD  TEI^  BED   BOVEB. 

"Caudle,  have  you  looked  under  the  bed?  What  for  f  Bless 
the  man!  Why,  for  thieves,  to  be  sure.  Do  you  suppose  Td 
sleep  in  a  strange  bed  without  ?  Don't  tell  me  it's  nonsense !  I 
shouldn't  sleep  a  wink  all  night.  Not  that  you'd  care  for 
that ;  not  that  you'd  —  hush !  I'm  sure  I  hear  somebody.  No, 
it's  not  a  bit  like  a  mouse.  Yes ;  that's  like  you ;  laugh  1  It 
would  be  no  laughing  matter,  if  —    I'm  sure  there  is  somebody. 

*'  —  Yes,  Mr.  Caudle ;  now  I  am  satisfied.  Any  other  man 
would  have  got  up  and  looked  himself;  especially  after  my  suffer- 
ings on  board  that  nasty  ship.  But  catch  you  stirring !  Oh,  no ! 
You'd  let  me  lie  here  and  be  robbed  and  killed,  for  what  you'd 
care.  "VVhy,  you're  not  going  to  sleep  I  "What  do  you  say  ?  IVs 
Vu  strange  air  —  and  yau^re  always  sleepy  in  a  strange  air  f  That 
shows  the  feelings  you  have  after  what  I've  gone  through.  And 
yawning,  too,  in  that  brutal  manner  I 

"  No,  I  couldn't  leave  my  temper  at  home.  I  dare  say  I  Because 
for  once  in  your  life  you've  brought  me  out — yes,  I  say  once,  or 
two  or  three  times,  it  isn't  more;  because,  as  I  say,  you  once 
bring  me  out,  I'm  to  be  a  slave  and  say  nothing.  Pleasure,  in- 
deed 1  A  great  deal  of  pleasure  I'm  to  have,  if  I'm  to  hold  my 
tongue  I 

"  Dear  me !  if  the  bed  doesn't  spin  round  and  dance  about ! 
I've  got  all  that  filthy  ship  in  my  head  1  No,  1  shan't  be  well 
In  the  morning.  You  needn't  groan  in  that  way,  Mr.  Caudle, 
disturbing  the  people,  perhaps,  in  the  next  room.  It's  a  mercy 
I'm  alive,  I'm  sure.  If  once  I  wouldn't  have  given  all  the  world 
for  anybody  to  have  thrown  me  overboard!      What  are  you 

tv«.    or  a  T«rb.    Of  a  prepoaltiun.    Of  a  ooojanotloo.    606.  In  what  kind  of  tXjW 
%m  vIlipMM  frvqaent  t 


180  EXERCISE   IN   ELLIPTICAL    PARSING. 

smacking  your  lips  at,  Mr.  Caudle  ?  But  I  know  what  you  mean 
— of  course,  you'd  never  have  stirred  to  stop  'em ;  not  you.  And 
then  you  might  have  known  that  the  wind  would  have  blown 
to-day  ;  hut  that's  why  you  came. 

"  What  do  you  say?  A  good  deal  my  own  fault?  J  tooJc  too 
much  dinner  1  Well,  you  are  a  man !  If  I  took  more  than  the 
breast  and  the  leg  of  that  young  goose  —  a  thing,  I  may  say,  just 
out  of  the  shell  —  with  the  slightest  bit  of  stuffing,  I'm  a  wicked 
woman.  What  do  you  say?  Lohster  salad  f  La!  how  can  you 
speak  of  it  ?  A  month-old  baby  would  have  eaten  more.  What  ? 
Gooseberry  pief  Well,  if  you'll  name  that,  you'll  name  any- 
thing. Ate  too  much  indeed  I  Do  you  think  I  was  going  to 
pay  for  a  dinner,  and  eat  nothing  ?  No,  Mr.  Caudle  ;  it's  a  good 
thing  for  you  that  I  know  a  little  more  of  the  value  of  money 
than  that. 

"  It's  a  mercy  that  some  of  the  dear  children  were  not  drowned ; 
not  that  their  father  would  have  cared.  Peter  was  as  near 
through  one  of  the  holes  as  —  IVs  no  such  thing  f  It's  very 
well  for  you  to  say  so,  but  you  know  what  an  inquisitive  boy 
he  is,  and  how  he  likes  to  wander  among  steam-engines.  No, 
I  won't  let  you  sleep.  What  a  man  you  are!  Go  to  sleep, 
indeed !  as  if  one  could  never  have  a  little  rational  conversation. 

"A  miserable  creature  they  must  have  thought  me  in  the 
ladies'  cabin,  with  nobody  coming  down  to  see  how  I  was.  You 
came  a  dozen  times  f  No,  Caudle,  that  won't  do.  I  know  better^ 
And  when  I  was  so  ill  that  I  didn't  know  a  single  thing  that  was 
going  on  about  me,  and  you  never  came.  Every  other  woman's 
husband  was  there  —  ha !  twenty  times.  And  what  must  have  been 
my  feelings  to  hear  'em  tapping  at  the  door,  and  making  all  sorts 
of  kind  inquiries  —  something  like  husbands  1 — and  I  was  left  to 
be  ill  alone  I  Yes,  and  you  want  to  get  me  into  an  argument. 
You  want  to  know  if  I  was  so  ill  that  I  knew  nothing,  how  could 
I  know  that  you  didn't  come  to  the  cabin  door.  That's  just  like 
your  aggravating  way.  But  I'm  not  to  be  caught  in  that  manner, 
Caudle.    No." 

"  It  is  very  possible,"  writes  Caudle,  "  that  she  talked  two 
hours  more  :  but,  happily,  the  wind  got  suddenly  up  —  the  waves 
bellowed  —  and,  soothed  by  the  sweet  lullaby,  I  somehow  fell 


DIFFICULT  CONSTRUCTIONS    EXPLAINED.  181 

LESSON  LXIX. 

EXPLANATION    OF    DIFFICULT    CONSTRUCTIONS. 

50G.  Some  of  the  most  common  expressions  involve 
difficulties  in  parsing.  Many  of  these  have  already 
been  explained ;  some  more  are  presented  below,  with 
suggestions  to  aid  the  pupil.  Let  portions  of  conve- 
nient length  be  assigned  as  lessons,  and  each  sentence 
be  analyzed  and  parsed. 

How  much  [rt</j.,  relating  to  money  understood]  is  it  worth 
\prfp.]'i — John  Jacob  Astor  waa  worth  nearly  twenty  millions 
[object  of  the  prep,  worth]  of  dollars. — It  is  worth  while  to  go  to 
Strasburg,  just  to  see  the  Cathedral. — Victory  over  one's  self  is  a 
victory  worth  talking  of  [part,  used  independently,  §  440]. 

The  wise  man  is  always  ready  for  the  ups  [noun]  and  downs 
of  life. — Every  now  and  then  we  heard  the  cannon  boom  [ivfin.]. 
— Thy  throne  is  established  of  old  [adj.,  relating  to  time  under- 
stood].— Forgive  me  this  once  [noun^  obj.  case,  Rule  V.]. — All 
[adc]  at  once  the  sky  waa  overcast. — The  news  soon  spread  all 
over  the  country. — If  honor  is  left,  all  ]noun\  is  not  lost. 

What  [adv.,  equivalent  to  partly]  by  force,  what  by  policy,  he 
took  fifty  castles. — What  witli  hunger,  what  with  fatigue,  we 
could  advance  no  farther. — What  [difference  would  it  make] 
though  none  live  my  innocence  to  tell? — What  [would  be  the 
consequence]  if  an  insurrection  should  break  out  ? — What  ho ! 
warriors,  have  you  seen  any  one  of  my  sisters  wandering  this  way 
[Rule  v.]  ? 

Somehow  or  other  [adv.\  he  is  always  first. — Children  manage 
to  move  about  in  some  way  or  other  {adj.\  even  if  it  is  on  all-fours 
[noun]. — You  are  beaten  all  hollow  [a<fr.] ;  for  shame! — I  wrote 
a  month  ago  [adj.]. — Of  the  cattle  of  the  children  of  Israel,  died 
not  one  [animal]. — We  have  more  than  [what]  heart  could  wish. — 
My  friend  the  doctor's  wife  has  been  taken  seriously  ill. 

Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen.  [Many  is  an 
adj.  and  relates  to  flower,  which  is  singular  though  more  than  one 
are  meant  This  is  because  many  a  has  a  distributive  force,  like 
wery  ;  we  saj  every  man,  though  we  mean  more  than  one  —  o^ 


182  DIFFICULT   CONSTRUCTIONS   EXPLAINED. 

men.] — ^By  the  bye  [noun],  have  you  e'er  a  [corrupted  into  dri/\ 
newspaper  to  lend  ? — We  saw  ne'er  a  [corrupted  into  nary]  man 
during  our  whole  ride.  [ITe)'  a  is  equivalent  to  any  ;  neer  a,  to 
no.  These  constructions  are  analogous  to  many  a  ;  and  e'er  and 
ne'er  are  adjectives.] 

He  is  all  the  time  saying  that  such  and  such  [adj.]  a  person 
is  to  be  admired. — What  did  you  find  in  the  drawer  ?  A  ten- 
dollar  [adj.]  bill  [object  of  found  understood],  a  bright-red  ribbon, 
and  a  twenty-inch  rule. — My  health  is  so-so  [adj.] ;  how  is  yours? 
— His  own  [adj.,  relating  to  people  understood]  received  him  not. — 
They  are  all  gone  [for  have  gone,  §  356j.  So  much  the  better  [adj.j 
relating  to  it  understood]. 

Ellipses,  as  [it]  has  been  said  above,  often  occasion  difficulties 
in  parsing.— [I  wish  you]  Good  morning,  Harriet;  what  a  fine 
day  it  is  I — Long  life  to  the  republic ! — [Though  we]  Go  where  we 
may,  we  find  traces  of  sin  everywhere. — Go  or  stay,  I  am  satisfied. 
— To  redeem  such  a  sinner  as  I  [am],  is  indeed  a  triumph  of  grace. 
— We  have  progressed  further  in  art  than  the  ancients  [progressed]. 
—They  hurt  themselves  more  than  [they  hurt]  us.  [In  all  such 
constructions  than  is  a  conjunction,  and  the  case  of  the  word  fol- 
lowing it  depends  on  something  understood.] 

A  hundred  [collective  noun,  almost  always  construed  with  a 
plural  verb]  people  [object  of  <>/*  understood]  may  be  killed,  yet  no- 
body is  to  blame. — A  few  railroads  .will  soon  open  up  the  country. 
— A  great  many  houses  are  to  let  in  Twenty-eighth  Street. — Have 
you  a  high -pressure  steamboat  to  sell  ? — They  are  so  much  alike  you 
can  not  tell  which  is  which  [inter,  pro.]. — Every  thing  depends  on 
[prep.,  having  for  its  object  the  substantive  clause  that  follows] 
who  your  friends  are. — At  the  time  that  I  was  there,  not  a  ship 
was  in  port.— A  reward  shall  be  given  to  whoever  [§  163]  shall 
arrest  the  criminal. 

Science'  [Rule  HI.]  self  could  wish  no  more  devoted  follower. 
— The  keeper  of  the  forest's  daughter  has  arrived.  [More  ele- 
gantly, the  daughter  of  the  Tceeper  of  the  forest.  As  first  expressed, 
Iceeper  of  the  forests  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  complex  noun  in  the 
possessive  case.]— Those  lips  of  Washington's  [§130]  are  now  silent 
forever. — That  portrait  of  my  father's  needs  varnishing. — He  has 
bought  more  books  than  [what]  are  needed.—!  shall  lay  in  only 
as  many  books  as  [rel.  pro.]  are  needed. 


DIFFICULT   CONSTRUCTIONS   EXPLAINED.  183 

They  could  do  nothing  except  pray  [infinitive,  limiting  the 
meaning  of  the  prep,  excfpf], — If  I  were  you,  I  would  do  nothing 
but  wait  in  patience. — It  is  likely  to  injure  ratlier  than  benefit 
[infin.,  liraitiug  the  nieaning  of  the  conj.  than)  us. — Polycarp  died 
rather  than  give  up  his  faith. — lie  could  not  do  otherwise  than 
say  what  he  did.— The  hamster  rat,  rather  than  yield,  will  allow 
itself  to  be  beaten  to  pieces. 

"Wo  can  but  rejoice. — We  can  not  but  rejoice.  [The  latter  sen- 
tence expresses  the  same  idea  as  the  former,  but  more  strongly. 
Two  negatives  usually  nullify  each  other  and  make  the  sentence 
atfirmative,  but  here  they  strengthen  the  negation.  But  is  an  ad- 
verb.]— Cyrus  did  his  utmost  to  please  his  friends. 

I  had  as  lief  cross  the  ocean  as  not.  [Had  ctosh  is  evidently  a 
corruption ;  for  the  auxiliary  hcul  should  be  combined  with  the 
participle  erosted^  and  not  the  root  of  the  verb  cross.  The  mean- 
ing, as  well  as  the  correct  form  of  this  expression,  is  /would  a$ 
lief  cross  the  ocean  as  not.  Parse,  therefore,  as  follows :  had  cross 
is  a  corruption  for  would  cross,  potential  mood,  imperfect  tense, 
&c.  I  had  may  have  come  thus  to  be  confounded  with  /  would, 
in  consequence  of  the  frequent  abbreviation  of  both  expres- 
sions into  /v.] — You  had  best  not  disturb  her. — A  good  man  hr.d 
rather  conceal  another's  faults  than  make  them  known.— You  had 
better  fii-st  see  whether  you  are  invulnerable  yourself. 

Every  one  tried  to  make  much  [noun]  of  La  Fayette. — Never 
make  light  [noun]  of  serious  things. — Cursed  be  he  that  setteth 
light  by  his  father  or  his  mother. — The  whole  community  set 
store  by  an  honest  man. — He  is  so  awkward  that  people  are 
apt  to  make  fun  of  him. — Before  going,  make  [intrans.]  sure 
[adj.,  relating  to  you  understood,  the  subject  of  make]  of  the  means 
of  returning. — The  village  boys  make  quite  free  with  our  orchard. 
— The  Hindoo  women  make  away  with  their  children,  by  throwing 
tliem  into  the  Ganges. — I  will  make  bold  to  tell  you  that  you  fall 
far  short  of  my  expectations. — Have  you  taken  possession  of  your 
house  ? 

[To  male  much  qf  and  several  of  the  similar  expressions  just 
presented  are  sometimes  thrown  into  the  passive  form,  by  taking 
the  object  of  the  preposition  for  a  subject  and  incorporating  prep- 
osition and  noun  with  the  verb.  Thus :  La  Fayette  was  made 
much  of  by  turyhody.    Here  wa$  made  much  of  conveys  a  single 


184:  DIFFICULT   CONSTRTJCTIONS   EXPLAINED. 

idea — was  caressed — and  must  be  parsed  as  a  transitive  verb  in  tlie 
passive  voice.  Taken  separately,  the  words  can  not  be  satisfac- 
torily parsed.  Anomalous  as  this  idiom  is,  it  is  used  by  good 
writers.]— Serious  things  should  not  be  made  light  of. — Nobody 
likes  to  be  made  fun  of. — Many  children  are  made  away  with 
every  year  by  the  Hindoo  women. — Salamanca  was  next  taken 
possession  of  by  the  British. 

We  took  it  for  [a]  granted  [thing]  that  you  had  started. — Have 
they  given  up  the  child  for  [a]  lost  [child]  ? — I  can  not  help  think- 
ing that  you  are  a  little  premature. — We  have  a  pleasant  world  to 
live  in  [adv.\ — You  have  as  fine  a  house  as  anybody  need  want 
to  live  in  \_prep.^  having  the  relative  as  for  its  object]. — It  is  a 
matter  that  you  will  gain  nothing  by  alluding  to. 

Maugre  {l^rep.']  all  you  can  say,  I  am  resolved  not  to  go. — In- 
side the  building,  despite  our  efforts,  all  was  confusion. — I  took 
the  cars  for  Buffalo,  via  [prep.]  Dunkirk,  but  on  arriving  there 
found  myself  minus  my  purse. — A  fire  came  out  from  before  the 
Lord. — Six  times  three  is  eighteen.  [That  is,  Three  taken  six 
times  is  eighteen.  Three,  the  subject,  is  a  noun  in  the  nomina- 
tive ;  times  is  in  the  objective,  according  to  Bule  V.] 


LESSON   LXX. 

SUBJECT.— NOMINATIVE    INDEPEXDENT.-FALSE    SYNTAX. 

507.  Syntax. — The  following  principles  apply  to 
words  combined  in  sentences  : — 

1.  One  word  may  agree  with  another,  as  verb  with 
subject. 

2.  One  word  may  relate  to  another,  as  adjective  to 
substantive. 

3.  A  word  may  be  put  in  a  certain  case  on  account 
of  its  relation  to  some  other,  as  the  object  of  a  verb  in 
the  objective. 

601.  State   the    principles    that   apply   to   words   combined   in   sentenoea. 


SYNTAX.  185 

4.  Usage  often  requires  the  words  to  be  arranged  in 
a  certain  way. 

608.  The  word  syntax  means  a  putting  together.  That 
part  of  grammar  which  treats  of  the  relations  and  ar- 
rangement of  words  put  together  is  called  Syntax. 

The  rules  that  bear  on  these  relations  are  called  the 
Rules  of  Syntax.  Violations  of  these  rules  are  called 
False  Syntax. 

509.  In  the  preceding  lessons  have  been  presented, 
as  they  were  needed  in  parsing,  seventeen  rules  of  syn- 
tax. These  will  now  be  reconsidered  in  detail.  Tlieir 
application  in  different  cases  will  be  explained,  and 
additional  principles  relating  to  the  construction  and 
arrangement  of  sentences  will  be  laid  down.  The 
various  errors  into  which  there  is  a  liability  to  fall  in 
speaking  or  writing,  w^ill  be  presented  for  correction 
under  the  several  rules,  as  False  Syntax. 

The  reasons  for  making  the  corrections  should  in  all  cases  be  given, 
accoixling  to  the  models.  After  the  sentences  are  corrected,  they  may  bo 
analyzed  and  parsed,  in  whole  or  in  part,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  teacher. 

RULE  I.— Subject. 

510.  A  substantive  that  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  in 
the  nominative  case. 

511.  Arkanoement. — Tlie  subject  generally  precedes 
its  verb. 

512.  Exceptions. — Tn  the  following  cases,  the  subject  comes  after  the 
verb;  if  the  tense  is  compound,  after  the  first  auxiliary: — 

1.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  imperative  mood,  first  or  second  person ; 
as,  "  Pause  ie«  now."     *'  Repent  ye.'" 

fiOR  Wliat  doe«  the  wonl  tyntax  monn  t  lo  (rrammar,  -what  is  meant  by  Syntax  f 
Wliat  i«  meant  by  the  Rule*  of  Syntax  !  Wl>at  in  FalBo  Syntax  f  609.  Why  are 
the  rule*  of  ayntax  now  rupealod  t  610.  Recite  Rule  I.,  relating  to  the  aubject. 
Ml.  How  doe*  the  subject  frenemlly  stand,  aa  regards  tt«  verb  t  612.  Wliat  four 
•SMpUoM  an  noted  t    What  la  sometlniM  the  aflbot  of  plaoing  the  subject  after 


186  NOMINATIVE   INDEPENDENT. 

2.  When  the  verb  is  used  mterrogatively ;  as,  "  Are  you  safe  ?  *'  "  Will 
Howard  ever  be  forgotten  ?  " 

3.  When  if  or  though^  denoting  a  supposition,  is  suppressed ;  as,  "  Had 
the  British  been  wise,  they  would  have  listened  to  the  colonists  [for,  IfOie 
British  had  been  wise,  &c.]." 

4.  When  a  wish  is  expressed  with  the  potential ;  as,  "  May  justice 
triumph ! " 

The  subject  may,  in  other  cases,  particularly  in  poetry,  follow  its  verb, 
— and  often  with  fine  effect ;  as,  "  How  beautiful  is  nature  "  "  Let  there 
be  light,  said  God,  and  there  was  light." 

RULE  n. — Nominative  Independent. 

613.  A  substantive  used  independently  is  in  the 
nominative  case. 

Examples. — Be  being  away,  the  work  suffers. — Conscript  fathers,  with 
you  it  rests  to  punish  guilt. — Oh,  wretched  day ! — My  country — ^where  is 
she  now? — His  last  words  were,  "My  wife!  my  child!" — James  I.  would 
not  allow  his  subjects  to  approach  him, — a  course  that  always  gives  dissat- 
isfaction.— The  reputation  of  being  a  wit  is  not  worth  much. — I  had  no 
suspicion  of  its  being  you. 

614.  Caution. — Every  substantive  that  appears  to  be  used  independ- 
ently is  not  really  so  used.  The  case  may  depend  on  a  word  understood. 
"  Farewell !  a  pleasant  voyage ! "  Here  voyage  is  not  in  the  nominative 
independent,  but  in  the  objective,  the  object  of  the  verb  wish  understood 
— /  wish  you  a  pleasant  voyage.  So,  at  the  close  of  a  letter,  "Your 
obedient  servant,  Henry  Jones."  Servant  is  not  nominative  independent, 
but  nominative  after  the  verb  am  understood — /  am  your  obedient  servant. 

FALSE     SYNTAX. 

Under  §  510.  They  said  they  could  run  faster  than  me. 

[  Corrected. — They  said  they  could  run  faster  than  /.  Me  must 
be  changed  to  /,  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  the  subject  of 
tlie  verb  could  run  understood.] 

Her  and  me  are  going  to  the  fair.— The  Bermudas'  were  dis- 
covered by  Juan  Berraudez. — Them  that  help  themselves  deserve 
help. — Few  are  so  industrious  as  her. — Who  interrupted  me  just 
now  ?    Me. — Whom  do  you  suppose  arrived  last  night  ? — Where 

the  verb  I    513.  Recite  Rule  II.,  relating  to  the  nomlr.ative  independent.    Give  ex- 
ampltw.    514.  What  caution  is  given  1    lUuBtrato  this. 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  187 

are  him  and  you  staying? — Edible  birds'-nests'  are  in  groat  favor 
with  the  Chinese. — Which  of  you  tore  that  curtain?  Not  me,  but 
him. — You  certainly  can  not  think  that  you  are  happier  than  us.— 
Kangaroo's  are  found  only  in  Australia. — Thee  needst  not  have 
rebuked  me  so  severely. — Ilim  who  honestly  earns  Ins  bread  by 
the  sweat  of  his  brow,  all  men  respect ;  but  him  who  is  too  proud 
to  work  is  esteemed  by  none. 

Under  §  513.  Oh  blissful  hour,  and  thrice-blessed  us  that  see  it! 

[CorreeUd. — Oh  blissful  hour,  and  thrice-blessed  we  that  see 
it !  Ui  must  be  changed  to  tc<?,  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is 
used  independently.] 

Him  that  hath  eyes  to  see,  let  him  see. — Thee  guiding  us,  spirit 
of  art,  we  shall  surmount  the  difficulties  of  the  way. — Us  absent, 
matters  will  probably  bo  neglected. — Her  having  died,  the  estate 
reverted  to  her  mother. — Ah  miserable  us!  why  are  we  thus  for- 
saken?— Him  having  been  mentioned  as  a  suitable  party,  would  it 
not  be  well  to  offer  him  the  situation?— Them  that  are  athirst,  let 
them  all  come  and  drink. 

And  her,  the  sportive,  guileless  forest  maid, 
Where  is  she  now  ?    Ah  1  ask  the  flowers  that  fade. 

EXERCISE    IN    VABIETY    OP    EXPBESSION. 

Vary  the  form  of  the  folloteing  sentences  toithout  altering  their 
meaning^  by  substituting  for  the  dependent  clause  in  each  another 
clause  containing  a  nominative  independent  and  a  participle. 

As  she  is  a  general  favorite,  there  are  few  that  do  not  miss  her. 

[Varied. — She  being  a  general  favorite^  there  are  few  that  do 
not  miss  her.] 

After  ho  had  been  defeated,  the  senate  once  more  returned  to 
the  city. — As  they  are  in  the  wrong,  I  do  not  feel  called  on  to 
apologize. — They  have  no  claim  to  the  rents,  inasmuch  as  we  are 
owners  of  the  property. — Since  you  and  1  have  agreed  on  terms, 
I  can  not  see  why  any  one  should  interfere. — I  shall  go  to  see 
Reuben  and  Rjdph  to-morrow,  for  they  are  the  principal  parties 
interested. — As  she  and  her  sisters  are  acquaintances  of  mine,  I 
will  introduce  you  with  pleasure. — Inasmuch  as  Mariti,  you,  and  f, 
are  the  principal  heirs,  it  is  proper  that  we  should  be  present  when 
the  w^ill  is  read. 


188  SUBSTANTIVES   MODIFYING   NOUNS. 

LESSON  LXXI. 

SUBSTANTIVES    MODIFYING    NOUNS.-FALSE    SYNTAX. 


RULE   in. SUBSTANTIVRS   MODIFYING   NoUNS. 

615.  A  substantive  tliat  modifies  a  noun  denoting  a 
difierent  person  or  thing  by  implying  possession,  origin, 
or  fitness,  is  in  the  possessive  case. 

Examples. — Grace  was  in  all  her  steps. — Elizabeth^s  reign  was  longer 
than  Marrfs. — I  expect  to  attend  St.  Peter's  [church]  to-morrow. — We 
called  at  the  Mai/or^s  [office]. — That  clock  is  inme  \jni/  property]. — The 
governor  of  New  York^s  message. 

616.  When  there  are  several  modifying  substantives,  they  are  all  in  the 
possessive  case.  If  they  separately  modify  different  nouns,  each  has  the 
sign  of  the  possessive.  If  they  jointly  modify  the  same  noun,  the  posses- 
sive sign  is  annexed  only  to  the  last.  If  John,  George,  and  Henry  have 
different  fathers,  I  say  "  John's,  George's,  and  Henry's  father  have  ar- 
rived ; "  that  is,  John's  father,  George's  father,  and  Henry's  father.  If  they 
are  brothers,  I  say  "  John,  George,  and  Henry's  father  has  arrived."  John 
and  George  are  still  in  the  possessive  case ;  but,  as  all  three  substantives 
jointly  modify  the  same  noun,  father  expressed,  the  sign  of  the  possessive 
is  annexed  to  the  last  only. 

517.  When  a  modifying  noun  has  another  noun  in  apposition  with  it 
in  the  possessive  case,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  annexed  only  to  the  one 
nearest  the  noun  modified;  as,  "Jeremiah  the  prophefs  Lamentations." 
"  The  prophet  JeremidCs  Lamentations."  ''  I  saw  it  at  Mosely's  [store], 
the  jeweller  that  has  just  opened  on  Main  Street." 

518.  When  a  modifying  noun  is  followed  by  an  adjunct  or  adjective, 
the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  annexed  to  the  latter  and  not  to  the  noun ;  as, 
*'  the  mayor  of  Troy^s  visit,"  "Richard  the  Lion-hearted' s  career." — Mayor 
of  Troy^s  and  Richard  the  Lion-hearteds  must  here  be  parsed  as  complex 
nouns  in  the  possessive  case,  for  the  whole  expression  is  made  possessive. 

515.  Recite  Rule  III.,  relating  to  suhstanliveB  modifying  nouns.  Give  exam- 
ples. 516.  When  there  are  several  modifying  substantives,  in  what  case  are  they  t 
If  they  separately  modify  different  nouns,  which  takes  the  sign  of  the  possessive? 
Which,  if  they  jointly  modify  the  same  noun  t  517.  When  a  modifying  noun  has 
another  noun  in  apposition  with  it,  which  takes  the  sign  of  the  possessive  case! 
518.  When  a  modifying  noun  is  followed  by  an  adjunct  or  adjective,  where  doed 


BrBOTANTIVEB  MODIFYING    NOUNS  189 

Sodi  constructions,  however,  it  b  best  to  avoid;  say  '*the  visit  of  the 
major  of  Troy,"  "  the  career  of  Richard  the  Lion-hearted." 

619.  A  succession  of  possessives  is  inelegant;  as,  ''Our  minister's  son's 
partner's  brother-in-law's  store."  Substitute  for  one  or  more  of  the  posses- 
sives of  with  the  objective,  or  other  woi-ds  denoting  the  relation  implied ; 
as,  "  The  store  belonging  to  the  brother-in-law  of  the  partner  of  our  min- 
ister's son."  It  would  not  do  to  change  each  of  the  possessives  to  of  with 
the  objective :  "  The  store  of  the  brother-in-law  of  the  partner  of  the  son 
of  our  minister."  This  repetition  would  be  as  inelegant  as  the  former  one; 
variety  is  essential. 

620.  The  possessive  case  and  of  with  the  objective  are  not  always 
equivalent  Thus,  tht  LoitPi  day  is  Suvday ;  but  the  day  of  the  Lord  is 
the  day  of  judgment.  We  may  speak  of  theflouxr  of  the  fieldy  but  not  of 
the  field's  flotoer.  * 

521.  Arrangement. — Tlie  modifying  substantive  in 
the  possessive,  for  the  most  part,  immediately  precedes 
the  noun  modified. 

622.  The  modifying  substantive  and  the  noun  modified  may  be  sepa- 
rated by  an  adjective  or  adjectives  relating  to  the  latter;  as,  "Nature's 
ricDest  and  most  beautiful  garb." 

They  must  not  be  separated  by  a  clause ;  as,  "  Our  friends',  for  friends 
they  certainly  are,  attentions  were  most  agreeable."  Alter  thus :  '*  The  at- 
temlona  of  our  friends,  for  friends  they  certainly  are,  were  most  agreeable." 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Under  §  515.  I  have  just  read  Josephus  history  and  Isocrates^ 
orations. 

[Corrected. — I  have  just  read  Josephvs^s  history  and  liocratet's 
orations.  Jotcphm  must  be  changed  to  Josephva's^  and  hocrata^ 
to  Isocrates'tt,  the  possessive  case,  because  they  respectively  modify 
the  nouns  history  and  (tratuma  by  implying  origin. — Still  better 
(§119),  the  oratums  of  Isoeratet.] 

Xerxes  expedition  signally  failed. — Wlio's  history  of  the  Tliirty 

ih*  aign  of  the  poMewive  appear  t  How  must  sncli  expresalont  as  mayor  of  7Voy*t 
be  parted  t  How  may  inch  czpreMiona  bo  improvi'd  t  619.  What  ia  said  of  a 
eoeceMioD  of  poMeaeivee  t  Wliat  is  saiii  of  the  repetition  of  o/"  with  the  objective  t 
How  may  aueti  inelegancips  bo  correcte«l  t  620.  Oive  examples  sbowii^K  that  the 
poesteslTt  ease  and  qf  with  the  objective  are  not  always  equivalent.  621.  What  is 
the  usual  poeitton  of  the  modifytng  subsUntlve  f  622.  By  what  may  the  modify- 
ing substantive  and  the  noun  modified  be  separated f  ^y  what  must  they  not  be 
separated  t 


190 


FALSE    SYNTAX. 


Years  War  is  the  best?  Schillers. — Two  months  notice  has  been 
given  to  those  tenants  of  your's. — There  was  as  much  pride  in 
Diogenes'  tub  as  in  Platos  well-spun  garments. — Achilles  mother 
dipped  him  in  Styx'  silent  stream. — Whosoever's  life  is  upright, 
peace  and  happiness  shall  be  his'. — Do  you  attend  St.  Thomas' 
church?  No;  All  Soul's. — The  countess' dress  was  more  magnifi- 
cent than  the  duchess' or  anyone  else. — For  goodness  sake,  employ 
your  talents  for  your  fellow-creatures  benefit. — Here  are  Perkins 
Arithmetic,  Brooks  Ovid,  Bobbins  Xenophon,  and  Tacitus  Life  of 
Agricola. 

Under  §  516.  I  have  bought  Andrews'  and  Stoddard's  Latin 
Grammar,  and  Worcester  and  Webster's  Dictionary. 
•  [Corrected. — I  have  bought  Andrews  and  Stoddard's  Latin 
Grammar,  and  Worcester's  and  Webster's  Dictionary.  The  pos- 
sessive sign  must  be  omitted  after  Andrews\  because  but  one 
grammar  is  referred  to,  produced  by  Andrews  and  Stoddard 
jointly.  The  possessive  sign  must  be  annexed  to  Worcester^  be- 
cause two  dictionaries  are  referred  to,  produced  by  Worcester  and 
Webster  separately.] 

A  small  stream  separates  my  brother  and  sister  farm. — It  would 
be  hard  to  decide  which  were  the  greater,  Caesar  or  Napoleon's 
victories. — Adam's  and  Eve's  Creator  is  our  Creator. — The  Bank 
of  England  was  established  in  William's  and  Mary's  reign. — Who 
was  Jacob's  and  Esau's  father? — Who  were  Saul  and  David's 
father? — Whose  store  is  that?  It  is  either  Lee's,  Jacques'  and 
Company,  or  Harris'. — France,  England,  and  America's  interests 
are  all  difierent. 

Under  §  517.  The  emperor  Augustus'  reign. — Augustus  the 
emperors  reign. — Peter  the  Hermits  eloquence. — Abernethy's  the 
great  physician's  practice. — The  papers  are  at  my  cousin's,  the 
lawyer. — You  will  find  it  at  Mason,  the  draper  and  tailor's  on 
High  Street. 

Under  §  518.  First  make  grammatical ;  then  change  to  the  more 
elegant  form,  of  with  the  objective: — Goliah's  of  Gath  spear.— The 
Queen  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  proclamation. — The  colonel's  of  the 
regiment's  orders. — The  captain  of  the  Erebus  daughter. — I  wish 
you  would  get  somebody's  else  permission. 

Under  §  519,  520.  Mary's  teacher's  brother's  child  was  taken 
eick  to-day. — The  house  of  the  sister  of  the  pilot  of  the  Albany 


THE  OBJECT.  191 

boat  was  robbed  last  night — Rome's  and  Greece's  glory,  their 
heroes'  exploits  and  their  authors'  genius,  are  still  the  brightest 
ornaments  of  the  historic  page. — The  press's  liberty  is  one  of  our 
chief  bulwarks. — The  intellect's  march  is  now  as  rapid  as  ever. 

UxDKR  §  522.  Good  Queen  Bess's,  as  she  is  commonly  called, 
reign,  was  one  of  the  most  glorious  in  English  history. — Such  wua 
this  impostor's,  if  we  may  so  characterize  him,  career. 


LESSON  LXXII. 

OBJECT. -OBJECTIVE    OF   TIME. -FALSE    SYNTAX, 


RULE  IV.— The  Object. 

523.  A  substantive  that  is  the  object  of  a  verb  or 
preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 

E.XAMPLE8. — Some  read  book.t  simply  for  amusement. — Surveying  the 
country  on  this  nde  [of]  the  Yarrotp,  I  found  some  charming  situations. — 
It  is  past  two  o'  clock  [for  on  the  clock]. — You  are  [by]  five  dollars  richer 
than  you  were. — Do  procure  [for]  her  a  situation. — I  forbid  you  [to  ap- 
pear in]  my  presence. — He  was  taught  [in]  philosophy  by  Newton. 

624.  Do  not  introduce  a  preposition  to  govern  the  object  of  a  transitive 
verb.  "  Consider  of  my  offer."  Consider  is  a  transitive  verb,  since  it 
affirms  an  action  exerted  on  my  offer ;  the  preposition  of  should  therefore 
be  omitted. 

625.  Do  not  make  an  intransitive  verb  govern  an  objective.  •'  He  will 
soon  repent  him  of  his  crime."  The  verb  will  repent  is  intransitive,  since 
it  affirms  an  action  not  exerted  on  any  person  or  thing;  him  should  thcre- 
(oi-e  be  omitted.  *'  Beware  the  tempter."  Beteare  is  intransitive ;  the 
proposition  of  atiould  therefore  be  introduced,  to  govern  tempter. — '*  Be- 
ware of  the  tempter." 

626.  A  verb  may  have  several  objects,  connected  by  a  conjunction;  a«, 
*'Clieri8h^'i«<»Vf,  charity,  and  truth.^ 

627.  A  verb  may  be  followed  by  two  objectives,  one  of  which  b  its  ob- 

tSS.  Rodte  Rale  IV.,  reUtin^  to  the  object.  Give  example*.  624.  Point  oot 
the  error  In  the  leutence  Consider  ^  mjf  effer.  State  the  rule  that  eppUea. 
626.  Point  out  tho  error  in  the  MOt«ooe  Anpur*  ths  tempter.  State  the  mle  that 
i^piiM.    tatk  Bow  many  ol\)ecte  may  a  verb  bavet    627.  By  what  may  a  verb  b« 


192 


THE   OBJECT. 


ject  and  the  other  in  apposition  with  this  object ;  as,  "  They  call  Walter 
Scott  the  wizard  of  the  North."  Walter  Scott  is  m  the  objective,  being 
the  object  of  the  verb  call ;  wizard  is  in  the  objective,  in  apposition  with 
Walter  Scott. 

528.  A  verb  is  frequently  followed  by  two  objectives,  the  former  of 
which  is  the  object  of  a  preposition  understood,  while  the  latter  is  the 
object  of  the  verb;  as,  "We  promised  [to]  the  best  speaker  a  prize.'* 
''  Thrice  they  offered  [to]  Caesar  a  crown."  "  Will  you  buy  [for]  me  a 
telescope  ?  " 

If  the  objects  are  transposed,  the  preposition  is  inserted;  as,  "We 
promised  a  prize  to  the  best  speaker."  "  Thrice  they  offered  a  crown  to 
Csesar."     "Will  you  buy  a  telescope /or  me?" 

When  such  constructions  are  thrown  into  the  passive  form,  the  object 
of  the  verb,  and  not  that  of  the  preposition,  must  be  made  the  subject ;  as, 
"  A  prize  was  promised  to  the  best  speaker,"  not  "  The  best  speaker  was 
promised  a  prize."  "  A  crown  was  thrice  offered  to  Caesar,"  kot  "  Caesar 
was  thrice  offered  a  crown." 

529.  A  verb  in  the  passive  voice  can  have  no  object.  A  substantive 
in  the  objective  case,  following  such  a  verb,  is  generally  governed  by 
some  preposition  understood ;  as,  "  Even  this  favor  was  denied  [to]  him.'''' 
"  He  was  expelled  [from]  the  kingdom.'''' 

530.  Avoid  making  the  same  word  the  object  of  a  verb  and  preposi- 
tion, or  of  two  prepositions  separated  by  intervening  words.  "  They  not 
only  themselves  vigorously  prosecuted,  but  called  on  their  allies  to  aid 
them  in,  the  wjar."  Correct  thus:  "They  not  only  themselves  vigorously 
prosecuted  the  war,  but  called  on  their  allies  for  aid."  "  I  would  have 
you  pay  deference  to,  and  place  confidence  in,  the  friends  that  I  leave  you." 
Correct  thus :  "I  would  have  you  pay  deference  to  the  friends  that  I  leave 
you,  and  place  confidence  in  them." 

531.  Arrangement. — The  object  generally  stands 
after  the  governing  word,  but  sometimes  precedes  it, 
particularly  in  solemn  and  poetical  style. 

Examples. — I  give  you  my  peace.  Solemn  style.  My  peace  I  give 
unto  you. 

followed  ?  528.  When  two  objectives  follow  a  verb,  of  what  are  they  sometimes 
respectively  the  objects?  If  the  objects  are  transiwsed,  what  change  is  made  in 
the  construction  ?  When  such  constructions  are  thrown  into  the  passive  form, 
what  must  be  made  the  subject  of  the  verb  ?  629.  When  an  objective  follows  a 
verb  in  the  passive  voice,  by  what  is  it  governed  ?  630.  Of  what  must  a  word  not 
be  made  the  object  ?  Give  a  sentence  in  which  this  rule  is  violated,  and  show  how 
to  correct  it.    631.  What  is  the  position  of  the  object  f    632.  What  claas  of  words 


OBJECTIVE   WITHODT  A   PEEPOsfllON.  19JJ 

He  lives  within  the  city's  walla.  Poetical.  He  lives  the  citj*8  walls 
within. 

632.  The  relatives  and  interrogatives  always  precede  their  governing 
Tcrb.  Tliat  and  ax  always  precede  the  governing  preposition  ;  the  other 
relatives  and  the  interrogatives  often  do  so  in  familiar  style.  We  say,  "  The 
man  that  I  met,  that  I  spoke  to."  "  The  man  whom  I  met,  whom  I  spoke 
to,  or  to  whom  I  spoke."  "  Whom  did  I  meet  ?  "  *'  Whom  did  I  speak 
to,  or  to  whom  did  I  speak  ?  '* 

RULE  V. — Objective  without  a  Preposition. 

533.  A  modifying  substantive,  denoting  time,  direc- 
tion, extent,  quantity,  or  value,  often  stands  in  the  ob- 
jective case  without  a  preposition. 

Examples. — I  am  twenty  yearx  old,  this  very  day, — Three  timex  he 
rose. — A  sick  man  always  wants  to  go  home. — She  rode  a  mile. — A  well 
fifty /cei  deep. — This  wheat  will  measure  fifty  bnsfieh,  and  will  weigh  sixty 
pounds  to  the  bushel. — lie  charged  me  a  dollar  for  this  book. 

In  the  examples  just  given,  no  preposition  can  be  supplied  to  govern 
the  objectives  in  italics.  But  in  many  cases  prepositions  are  used  or  un- 
derstood, and  then  Rule  IV.  applies.  "  On  Monday  last  he  started  for 
the  touth.^  "Our  western  prairies  often  extend /or //te/^x."  "A  cubic 
foot  of  gold  would  be  [by]  many  pounds  heavier  than  a  cubic  foot  of 
coal." 

634.  To  is  omitted  before  home^  north,  sonih,  &c.,  when  not  modified 
by  other  words,  but  expressed  when  they  are  modified :  as,  "  He  went 
home,  north,  south ; "  but,  "  He  went  to  his  home,  to  the  north,  to  the 
far-distant  south." 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Ukdkr  §  523.  Who  should  I  trust,  if  not  he  who  I  have  lived 
with  for  years? 

[Corrected. —  Whom  should  I  trust,  if  not  him  whom  I  have 
lived  with  for  years  ?  Who  must  be  changed  to  whom,  he  to  Ai;n, 
and  who  to  whom,  to  be  in  tlie  objective  case ;  the  first  whom 

always  prMMd«  their  gOTBming  verb!  What  words  always  precede  their  govern- 
ing preposition!  What  words  often  do  sof  633.  Recite  Rule  V.,  relating  to  a 
roodifying  sabatantive  denoting  time,  4u).  Give  examplcn,  nnd  sute  what  each 
objeetive  daootM.  KL  Give  tb«  rule  ralating  to  the  propositioo  to  befora  Amm, 
north,  touth,  Ste. 

9 


194:  FALSE   SYNTAX. 

being  the  object  of  the  verb  should  trusty  Mm  of  should  trust 
understood,  and  the  second  whom  of  the  preposition  with.'] 

I  love  ye. — Let  all  the  world  give  homage,  and  they  praise 
that  never  praised  before.— Who  did  Dr.  Jones  appoint  as  liis 
executors  ? — We  will  meet  you  and  he  this  evening. — Let  who- 
ever you  wish,  be  present. — I  mentioned  those  that  I  had  seen, 
and  she  among  the  rest. — Between  you  and  I,  there  is  something 
wrong  in  that  family.  —Despite  ye  all,  I  will  succeed. — We  have 
not  had  many  Nero's  in  modern  times. — Take  care  who  you  give 
that  letter  to. — What  has  become  of  the  Washingtons'  and  Frank- 
lin's?— Let  the  scholar  confine  himself  to  his  studies,  and  he  that 
wishes  to  be  safe  avoid  the  vortex  of  politics. — Notwithstanding 
the  persuasions  of  my  friends  and  she  whom  I  loved  more  than 
they  all,  I  determined  to  return. 

Undee  §  524.  I  do  not  recollect  of  any  parallel  case  in  his- 
tory.— He  will  commence  with  his  studies  next  week. — No  per- 
son that  respects  himself  can  allow  of  such  liberties. — Why  will 
men  pursue  after  pleasure  ? — Man  wants  for  little  here  below. — 
She  will  not  permit  of  any  interference. — We  have  tried  in  vain 
to  discover  about  his  plans. 

Under  §  525.  Fare  thee  well. — Retire  thee  into  the  drawing- 
room. — We  should  beware  us  of  evil  practices. — I  fear  me  there 
are  spies  abroad. — Sit  thee  down  and  rest  thee  here. 

Undee  §  528.  Washington  was  ofiered  kingly  power. — It 
seems  as  if  I  were  grudged  even  the  food  I  eat. — When  a  visitor 
comes  in,  he  should  be  handed  a  book. — I  was  told  a  very  sin- 
gular story. — He  was  allowed  a  pension  in  consequence  of  his 
services. 

Under  §  530.  The  nutmeg  tree  is  a  native  of,  and  is  still  largely 
cultivated  in,  the  Moluccas. — We  should  not  only  respect  and  obey, 
but  try  to  pay  every  attention  to,  our  parents. — The  natives  of 
Iceland  collect  great  quantities  of,  and  realize  quite  a  profit  by 
exporting,  eider-down. 

Under  §  533.  A  man  of  three-score  years  old. 

[  Corrected. — A  man  three-score  years  old.  Of  must  be  omitted, 
because  years,  being  the  objective  of  time,  needs  no  prepo^ 
sition.] 

Dig  a  pit  of  six  feet  deep. — If  it  rains  on  to-morrow,  I  shall 
want  to  return  to  home  without  delay. — I  met  a  lady  of  from 


SUBSTANTIVES   IN   APPOSITION.  105 

twenty  to  thirty  years  of  ago. — For  three  times  the  strngglo  was 
renewed. — For  these  I  will  charge  you  at  a  dollar  a  dozen. 


LESSON   LXXIII. 

IUB8TANTIVE8    IN    A  PPOS  I  TION.-F  A  L8E   SYNTAX. 


RULE   VI. — SUBSTANTITES   IN  APPOSITION. 

535.  One  substantive  joined  to  another  denoting  the 
same  person  or  thing,  is  in  the  same  case. 

Examples. — The  fables  of  .(Esop,  a  Phrygian  slave. — Wolsoy,  the 
butcher's  son,  rcse  to  be  a  cardinal. — Wolsey  the  cardinaPa  career  termi- 
nated unfortunately. — Homer  wrote  two  great  works,  the  Hiad  and  the 
Odi/sHft/. — I  heard  it  myself. — I  Daniel  saw  a  vision. — Ye  generation  of 
vipers. — Father  Matthew  has  done  much  for  temperance  in  Ireland. — The 
evangelist  John  was  bom  in  Bcthsaida. 

The  leading  substantive  generally  precedes  the  other,  but  not  alwayai, 
as  will  be  seen  by  the  last  two  examples. 

686.  Substantives  in  apposition  are  frequently  introduced  by  the  words 
as,  or,  that  is,  namely  (viz.),  to  wit.  "France  has  always  looked  upon 
England  as  her  enemy  [in  apposition  with  England^^  "  The  czar,  or 
emperor,  of  Russia,  is  now  at  Moscow."  "The  Helvetian  republic,  that  is 
Switzerland,  has  given  many  proofs  of  its  attachment  to  liberty."  "  Three 
children  of  Henry  VIII.  reigned  after  him;  namely  [viz.,  to  wit]  Edward 
VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth.'' 

537.  A  substantive  repeated  for  emphasis  often  stands  in  apposition 
with  the  same  word  previously  used;  as,  "They  are  tyrants,  unfeeling 
tyrants,  tyrants  from  whose  tender  mercies  nothing  is  to  be  hoped." 

638.  A  noun  may  be  put  in  apposition  with  a  clause  or  member  of 
a  sentence ;  as,  "  Pocahontas  informed  the  colonists  of  the  intended 
massacre, — a  favor  that  was  not  soon  forgotten."  As  the  clause  or 
member  has  no  case,  the  case  of  the  noun  in  apposition  is  not  thua 

63ft.  Bcelto  Rul«  VI.,  rolnting  to  sab«Untive«  in  appofiitton.  Give  oxnnipli*fl, 
and  tKtXt  with  what  each  aubatantire  that  tlluatratea  tho  rule  is  in  nppoaition. 
How  doca  the  appoaition  aubataotivv  generally  atand  t  636.  By  what  are  aubatan- 
tivea  In  appoaiUon  (Vcqaently  introduced  t  637.  With  what  doca  a  aabatantive 
repeated  for  emphaaia  often  ataod  in  appoaition  t  638.  With  what,  beaidea  a  aab. 
aUuUve,  may  a  noan  b«  put  In  appoaition  t    In  aach  conatmctiona,  what  la  tbo 


196  fiUBSTANTrV^ES   IN   APPOSITION. 

settled ;  it  may  be  regarded  as  in  the  nominative  independent,  according 
to  Rule  II. 

539.  A  noun  in  apposition  with  a  plural  substantive,  or  with  two  or 
more  singular  substantives  taken  together,  must  be  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  We 
must  not  make  ourselves  gluttojis.''''  *'  Washington  and  Adams,  the  first 
presidents.'''' 

540.  The  pronouns  ally  these,  both,  and  such,  are  put  in  apposition 
with  more  than  one  singular  substantive  taken  together ;  as,  "  Hun,  Goth, 
and  Vandal, — all  were  there."  "Scipio  and  Hannibal  were  both  great 
generals." 

541.  The  singular  pronoun  each  is  put  in  apposition  with  a  plural  sub- 
stantive ;  as,  "  They  looked  out  each  for  himself." 

642.  In  the  expressions  each  other  (properly  applied  to  two)  and  one 
another  (to  more  than  two),  each  and  one  are  in  apposition  with  some  pre- 
ceding substantive.  "Be  ye  loving  to  one  another :  "  one  is  in  the  nomi- 
native case,  in  apposition  with  ye  ;  another  is  in  the  objective,  after  the 
preposition  to, — be  ye  loving,  one  to  another. — "Righteousness  and  Peace 
have  kissed  each  other  : "  each  is  in  the  nominative,  in  apposition  with 
Righteousness  and  Peace  ;  oilier  is  the  object  of  have  kissed. — "  I  give  you 
to  each  other : "  each  is  in  the  objective,  in  apposition  with  you  ;  other  is 
also  in  the  objective  after  to. 

543.  There  is  no  apposition  in  the  following  cases,  even  though  the 
substantives  refer  to  the  same  thing : — 

1.  When  one  substantive  is  in  the  subject  and  the  other  in  the  predi- 
cate; as,  "  Prussia  is  a  kingdom."  Kingdom  is  in  the  nominative  after 
the  verb,  according  to  Rule  VII. 

2.  When  of  is  introduced,  to  govern  the  latter  substantive  ;  as,  "  The 
kingdom  of  Prussia." 

3.  Between  the  parts  of  a  complex  proper  noun  (which  should  be  taken 
together  in  parsing) ;  as,  Gape  Horn,  the  Ural  River,  Gilbert  Motier  de 
La  Fayette. 

4.  Between  the  relative  and  its  antecedent.  The  relation  subsisting 
between  these  is  pointed  out  in  Rule  VIII. 

544.  When  the  substantives  are  in  the  possessive  case,  the  sign  of  the 

caae  of  the  noun  in  apjwsition  ?  639.  When  must  the  apposition  noun  be  put  in 
the  plural  t  540.  With  what  are  the  pronouns  all,  these,  both,  and  such  put  in  ap- 
position ?  64L  With  what  is  each  put  in  apposition  ?  642.  In  the  expreesions  each 
other  and  one  another,  how  are  each  and  one  used  ?  Parse  one  and  another  in  the 
sentence  Be  ye  loving  one  to  another.  Parse  each  and  other  in  the  sentence  Right- 
eousnesa  and  Peace  have  kissed  each  other.  543.  Specify  the  four  cases  in  which 
there  is  no  apposition,  544.  When  the  substantives  are  in  the  possessive  oose, 
which  takes  the  sign  of  the  possessive  1 


FALSE   SYNTAX  197 

ive  is  used  but  once,  with  the  one  nearest  to  the  noun  modified 
as,   "  His  duties  as  editor  are  very  arduous."     "  Leave  it  at  the  doctor's 
[oflSce],  my  friend  on  Broadway."     "  Take  this  prescription  to  //t//,  the 
apothecary's  [shop]." 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Undkb  §  585.  I  love  the  generous  man,  he  whose  great  heart 
"Wide  opens  to  enfold  a  fellow  man. 

[Corrected. — I  love  the  generous  man,  him  whose  great  heart, 
Ac  He  must  be  changed  to  him^  to  be  in  the  objective  case,  be- 
oaase  it  is  in  apposition  with  the  objective  man.^ 

Harvey,  him  who  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
flourished  in  the  time  of  King  Charles  I. — Milton  visited  Galileo 
in  prison,  he  who  made  so  many  discoveries  in  Natural  Philoso- 
phy.— Will  you  thus  requite  me,  ungrateful  men — I  who  have 
toiled  for  you — I  who  have  lost  all  but  life  in  your  defence  ?— 
Captain  Grant,  he  that  commanded  the  Vixen,  I  used  to  count 
among  my  most  intimate  friends. — lie  loves  you  well,  all  ye  that 
hear  my  words. — Ilave  you  read  any  of  the  works  of  Hannah 
More,  she  who  was  so  popular  at  the  commencement  of  the  pres- 
ent century  ? 


LESSON  LXXIV. 

BUB8TANTIVE8   AFTER   VERBS. -FALSE   SYNTAX. 


RULE  Vll. — Substantives  after  Verbs. 
545.  A  verb  that  has  no  object  takes  the  same  case 
after  as  haioTQ  it,  when  both  words  refer  to  the  same 
person  or  tiling. 

Examples. — Prussia  is  a  kingdom  [same  case  as  Prussia^ — ^nomina- 
tive]. — I  know  Prussia  to  be  a  kingdom  [same  case  as  Prussia, — objec- 
tive].—  Who  was  Pericles  ?  [  Ulto  is  in  the  same  caae  as  Pericles^ — nonxi- 
native.] — It  was  she. — Did  you  know  it  to  be  her  f 

646.  Rule  VII.  refers  to  intransitive  verbs  of  existence,  such  as  6f ,  &#• 

646.  Recite  Rule  VII  ,  relming  to  •ub«Uintlvc«  u»od  after  verb*.  Give  eznm. 
pie*,  and  point  odt  the  aabetAoUve  before  aud  aAer  the  verb  In  each.    64A  Wliat 


198  PREDICATE    SUBSTANTIVE. 

come^  turn  out;  also,  to  the  transitive  verbs  call^  name,  make,  appoint, 
consider,  regard,  and  the  like,  in  the  passive  voice.  "  He  has  been,  be- 
come, president."  "  He  has  been  called,  made,  appointed,  elected,  chosen, 
president." 

547.  The  words  after  and  be/ore,  as  used  in  this  rule,  refer  to  the 
grammatical,  and  not  to  the  actual,  order.  In  most  cases,  the  two  corre- 
spond ;  but  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  always  to  be  regarded  as  before  it, 
and  the  other  substantive  as  after  it,  no  matter  what  position  they  may 
actually  occupy.  The  grammatical  order  may  be  reversed ;  as,  "  Who  art 
thou  ?  "  27iou  is  the  subject  or  nominative  before  the  verb  ;  who  is  in  the 
nominative  after  it. — Both  substantives  may  precede  the  verb ;  as,  "  I  know 
not  tohat  he  is  called." — Both  substantives  may  follow  the  verb;  as,  "Are 
you  a  Frenchman  ?  " 

548.  The  substantive  before  the  verb  is  sometimes  omitted ;  as,  "  [For 
a  man'\  To  become  a  profound  scholar  requires  long  and  patient  study." 
Scholar  is  in  the  objective  after  to  become,  because  man  understood  is  in 
the  objective  before  it. 

549.  The  substantive  before  the  verb  may  be  a  clause.  As  this  clause 
is  the  subject  of  the  verb,  it  stands  in  the  relation  of  the  nominative  case, 
and  the  substantive  after  the  verb  is  also  in  the  nominative.  "  To  write 
well  is  a  great  accomplishment  [nom.]."  "  Wlii/  he  did  it  is  a  mystery 
[nom.]  to  me." 

550.  Rule  Vn.,  of  course,  applies  to  participles.  "By  becoming  a 
Quaker,  Penn  incurred  his  father's  anger."  Penn,  to  which  the  parti- 
ciple becoming  relates,  is  in  the  nominative  case  before  it,  and  Quaker  is 
therefore  in  the  nominative  after  it. 

551.  A  participle  may  be  used  independently.  A  noun  standing  after 
a  participle  thus  used,  has  no  substantive  before  it  with  which  to  agree, 
and,  being  used  independently,  is  in  the  nominative  case.  "  Does  not  the 
mind  revolt  at  the  thought  of  being  a  murderer  ?  "  "  The  crime  of  being 
a  young  man  is  too  atrocious  to  be  forgiven."  Murderer  in  the  first  ex- 
ample, and  man  in  the  second,  having  no  substantive  before  the  par- 
ticiple being  with  which  to  agree  in  case,  are  in  the  nominative  inde- 
pendent. 

552.  Exception  to  Rule  YII. — When  the  substan- 

verbs  are  referred  to  in  this  rule  ?  547.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  words  qfter 
and  before  in  this  rule  1  How  does  the  grammatical  order  compare  with  the  actual 
order  t  Give  examples  in  which  they  diflFer.  548.  Which  substantive  is  some- 
times omitted  ?  649.  What  may  the  substantive  before  the  verb  be?  In  what 
case,  then,  is  the  substantive  after  the  verb?  650.  To  what,  of  course,  does  Rule 
VII.  apply?  Give  an  example.  651.  In  what  case  is  a  substantive  after  a  par- 
ticiple used  independently?     662.  Btate  the  exception  to  Rule  VII.     What  do 


PREDICATE   SUBSTANITVE.  199 

live  before  the  participle  is  in  the  possessive  case,  the 
substantive  after  it  is  not  put  in  tlie  possessive,  but  in 
the  nominative  ;  as,  "  Tlie  news  of  my  having  turned 
soldier  [not  soldier  a]  soon  reached  the  village."  *'  His 
being  a  Frenchman  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  matter.'^ 
Soldier  and  Frenchman  may  here  be  regarded  as  in 
the  nominative  independent. 

Some  grammarians  teach  that  the  sabetantiTethus  used  after  a  participle 
is  in  the  possessive  case,  with  the  sign  of  the  possessive  omitted.  But,  when 
a  pronoun  stands  in  this  construction,  it  is  unmistakably  in  the  nominative 
and  not  in  the  possessive ;  as,  "  I  had  no  suspicion  of  its  being  thry  [not 
theiry  It  is  fair  to  conclude  that  a  noun  in  the  same  construction  is  in 
the  nominative  also. 

Others  condemn  this  construction  altogether  and  would  substitute  an 
equivalent  clause;  as,  "The  news  that  I  had  turned  soldier^^^  &c.  "  77ie 
fact  that  he  is  a  Frenchman,^^  &c.  "  I  had  no  suspicion  that  it  was  they."^ 
As,  however,  the  construction  in  question  is  employed  by  good  writers  and 
often  expresses  the  idea  more  neatly  than  any  other,  there  is  no  reason 
why  it  should  not  be  used.  The  substantive  after  the  participle  simply 
constitutes  an  exception  to  Rule  YII.,  and  is  to  be  parsed  as  in  the  nomi- 
native independent. 

66.3.  This  rule  and  the  remarks  under  it  are  further  illustrated  in  the 
following 

PABSINa    EXEBCISE. 

No  carpet  knight  was  he. — What  is  a  noun  ? — Be  followers  of 
virtue. — To  bo  called  a  great  man  is  quite  different  from  really- 
being  one. — IIow  the  western  continent  became  peopled,  is  still 
an  unsettled  question. — Who  would  incur  the  imputation  of  being 
a  malicious  slanderer  ? — Nobody  likes  the  idea  of  being  called  a 
fop. — One  critic  approves  of  what  is  called  mere  bombast  by  an- 
other.— On  account  of  there  being  but  few  present,  the  lecture 
was  postponed. — Her  being  an  heiress  is  certainly  nothing  against 
her. — Bentley  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  best  Greek  scholar 
that  England  ever  produced. 

■omo  grammarlana  t«aeb  r«fpectin(r  thin  constniction  f  What  objection  Is  thore  to 
this  f  What  do  otbM*  My  of  this  oonslrucUoQ  t  Is  there  any  good  reMoa  for 
condemning  It  f 


200  PKEDICATE   SUBSTANTIVE. 


FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Under  §  545.  Did  you  suppose  it  was  me  ? 

[Corrected. — Did  you  suppose  it  was  I?  Me  must  bo  changed 
to  /,  to  be  in  the  nominative  after  the  verb  was,  it  being  in  the 
nominative  before  it.] 

Did  you  suppose  it  to  be  I  ? — Did  you  think  that  little  ill-formed 
man  was  me  ? — If  I  were  you  or  her,  I  would  put  a  stop  to  such 
proceedings. — You  know  not  whom  he  may  turn  out  to  be. — He 
is  not  the  person  whom  he  pretended  to  be,  or  who  you  supposed 
him  to  be. — It  was  my  brother  that  you  saw,  not  me. — It  makea 
no  difference  whom  or  where  you  are,  always  be  polite. — ^Why 
did  you  say  it  was  him  ? — The  Missouri  and  the  Mississippi  are  the 
longest  rivers'  of  North  America. 

Under  §  551.  I  had  no  idea  of  its  being  him. 

[Corrected. — I  had  no  idea  of  its  being  he.  Him  must  be 
changed  to  he,  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  used  independ* 
ently.] 

The  possibility  of  their  turning  soldiers'  never  occurred  to  me. 
— ^I  have  no  doubt  of  its  being  her. — They  entertained  no  suspi- 
cion of  its  being  me. — We  had  no  hope  of  their  becoming  such 
scholars'. 


LESSON  LXXY. 

PRONOUNS. -FALSE  SYNTAX. 

654.  The  case  of  a  pronoun  is  determined  by  the 
niles  already  given.  These  suffice  for  parsing;  but,  to 
avoid  errors  in  speaking  and  writing,  we  must  look  to 
other  things  also  as  well  as  case. 

555.  A  pronoun  takes  the  person,  number,  and  gen- 
der (when  it  has  gender),  of  the  substantive  for  which 
i-t  stands. 

"  Franklin  loved  his  country,  Yietoria  loves  her  country,  the  Swiss  love 
their  country,  we  love  our  country."    Here  the  pronoun  changes  first  from 

666.  What  detennines  the  person,  number,  and  gender  of  a  pronoun  I    Illu» 


SYNTAX   OF   PRONOUNS.  201 

rninmlinn  to  feminine  [Aw  to  A«r],  then  from  singular  to  plural  [her  to 
their],  then  from  tliird  to  first  person  [their  to  our],  in  consequence  of 
siroilar  changes  in  the  substantive  for  which  it  stands. 

556.  Exception. — Sometimes  a  pronoun,  in  stead  of 
agreeing  in  number  with  the  word  for  which  it  stands, 
agrees  rather  with  the  idea  conveyed ;  as,  "  Israel  had 
pitched  their  tents  in  the  desert."  Here  Israel  is  sin- 
gular, but  it  means  the  Israelites,  and  hence  the  pronoun 
referring  to  it  is  put  in  the  plural. 

*'  I  have  ten  dollars,  and  shall  put  it  in  the  Savings'  Bank  to-morrow." 
If  I  mean  ten  single  dollars  or  separate  coins,  I  should  say  "  put  them  in 
the  Savings'  Bank ; "  but  otherwise,  though  dollars  is  plural,  one  amount 
is  implied,  and  the  pronoun,  agreeing  with  the  idea  conveyed,  stands  in 
the  singular. 

667.  Manjf  a  is  always  used  with  a  singular  noun,  as  many  a  time, 
many  an  idle  usord;  but  the  idea  conveyed  is  plural.  A  pronoun  standing 
for  a  noun  preceded  by  many  a,  in  the  tame  member,  agrees  with  the  noun 
in  the  singular ,  but  in  VkfoUowing  member  agrees  with  the  idea  conveyed 
and  is  plural.  "  During  this  persecution,  many  a  martyr  shed  his  blood ; 
and  their  names  are  still  embalmed  in  the  memory  of  the  church." 

558.  A  pronoun  referring  to  a  collective  noun  is  put 
in  the  singular  when  the  individuals  referred  to  are 
taken  as  one  whole,  but  in  the  plural  when  they  are 
taken  separately ;  as,  "  Here  the  little  band  lost  some 
of  its  best  members."  "  Tlie  whole  band  eagerly 
plunged  into  the  river  to  drink  theh'  fill." 

669.  The  collective  nouns /ew,  many,  hundred,  thousand,  Ac,  preceded 
by  the  article  a,  always  take  a  pronoun  tn  the  plural ;  as,  "  A  few  lost  their 
Uvea ;  a  great  many  had  their  limbs  broken." 

560.  A  pronoun  standing  for  two  or  more  singular 

substantives  connected  by  aiid  expressed  or  understood, 

trat©  this.  668.  With  what  does  a  pronoun  iometimes  agree,  In  etead  of  the  word 
for  which  it  stands  f  Give  examples.  667.  With  what  number  Is  many  a  always 
a»4>d  t  la  what  nambcr  is  •  pronoun  that  stands  for  a  noun  preceded  by  mant/  a1 
668.  In  what  number  la  a  pronoun  put,  that  refers  to  a  collective  noun  t  668.  What 
oolle«'tive  nouns  always  take  a  pronoun  in  the  plural  t  660.  In  what  number  is  a 
IvoDoun  that  stands  for  two  or  moro  singular  substAntives  couiected  by  and  f 


202  SYNTAX  OF  PE0N0UN8. 

must  be  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  Martha  and  Mary  were 
weeping  for  their  brother  Lazarus."  "Faith,  hope, 
charity,  had  left  theiT  mark  on  his  character." 

661.  But  the  pronoun  must  be  put  in  the  singular, 

1.  When  the  substantives  for  which  it  stands  are  but  different  names' 
for  the  same  person  or  thing ;  as,  "  This  great  physician  and  surgeon  could 
heal  others;  himself  he  could  not  heal." 

2.  When  the  substantives  are  limited  hjeach,  every,  or  no;  as,  "Everji 
waving  tree  and  every  rippling  brook  has  its  lessons  for  the  thoughtful 
mind." 

562.  Singular  substantives  connected  by  and  also,  and  too,  and  not, 
but,  if  not,  or  as  well  as,  are  taken  separately,  and  have  a  pronoun  in  the 
eingular;  as,  "Brazil,  and  India  also,  is  noted  for  i^s  valuable  diamonds." 
*'  Not  only  Wellington,  but  Nelson,  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  this 
war."     "  The  lord,  as  well  as  the  beggar,  has  his  troubles." 

663.  A  plural  pronoun  referring  to  substantives  of 
different  persons  is  put  in  the  first  person  in  preference 
to  the  second,  and  the  second  in  preference  to  the  third ; 
as,  "  You  and  he  and  I  will  prepare  our  lessons,  if  no- 
body else  does."  "  You  and  he  will  not  disobey  your 
mother." 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Under  §  555.  There  is  such  a  noise  that  one  can  not  collect 
their  thoughts. 

[Corrected. — There  is  such  a  noise  that  one  can  not  collect  his 
thoughts.  Their  must  be  changed  to  his,  the  singular  number, 
because  one,  the  substantive  to  which  it  refers,  is  singular.] 

Every-body  ought  to  have  regard  to  the  dictates  of  their  own 
conscience. — No  one  can  tell  what  trials  may  await  them  to-mor- 
row.— ^A  cow  gives  every  token  of  distress  when  its  calf  is  taken 
from  it. — Any  one  can  secure  the  reputation  of  being  a  good  critic, 
if  they  will  find  fault  with  every  thing  and  every-body. — Let  d 


661,  In  what  two  cases  must  the  pronoun  be  put  in  the  singular  ?  662.  "What  con- 
nectives show  that  singular  substantives  are  taken  separately?  In  what  number 
must  a  pronoun  be,  that  refers  to  singular  substantives  so  connected  f  563.  What 
is  the  rule  for  the  person  of  a  plural  pronoun  referring  to  substantives  of  diflTerent 
persons  1 


FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Tonngman  be  temperate,  indastrioas,  andnpright,  and  people  will 
be  sure  to  respect  aud  trust  them. — When  the  buffalo  is  wounded, 
they  turn  furiously  on  their  pursuer,  and  sometimes  trample  him 
to  death. — They  carved  cherubim  out  of  Parian  marble,  and  placed 
it  over  the  shrine. 

I  have  lost  the  scissors.  Have  you  seen  it  ? — That  duck  has 
lamed  his  right  foot. — Every  animal,  however  small,  has  some 
weapon  with  which  they  can  defend  themselves. — The  tongs  should 
always  be  kept  in  its  place. — She  saves  her  wood-ashes,  and  sells 
it  to  a  soap-maker. — Thrifty  men,  when  they  have  received  their 
wages,  do  not  spend  it  for  liquor. — We  sent  for  the  regalia,  but  the 
manufacturer  said  that  he  had  not  finished  it. — As  I  was  looking 
at  the  heifer,  he  suddenly  started  off  and  ran  down  the  lane. — 
Each  horseman  put  their  lance  in  rest. 

Under  §  557,  558.  Many  a  flower  is  bom  to  blush  unseen,  and 
waste  their  sweetness  on  the  desert  air.— Many  a  book  is  published, 
that  is  positively  injurious  ;  if  it  were  committed  to  the  flames,  it 
would  be  a  blessing  to  the  community. — No  wonder  that  many  a 
poet  has  sung  the  name  of  Washington  and  inmiortalized  it  in  their 
noblest  strains. — The  jury  separated,  to  get  its  dinner. — The  court 
has  rendered  their  decision. — The  crew  were  next  called  on  deck, 
to  receive  its  orders. 

Under  §  500.  Hard  and  soft  soap  differ  from  each  other  in  the 
materials  that  enter  into  its  composition. — Shem,  Ham,  and 
Japhet,  went  into  the  ark  with  his  father  Noah. — My  son,  my 
daughter,  do  not  distress  yourself. — Adversity,  affliction,  tempta- 
tion, ought  we  not  to  be  ready  for  it  all  ? — I  have  tried  blue  and 
red  ink,  but  it  does  not  write  so  well  as  black. 

Under  §  661.  Tlie  druggist  and  apothecary  on  the  corner  will 
hereafter  close  their  store  on  Sunday. — My  friend  and  benefactor, 
do  not  withdraw  yourselves  from  my  embrace. — Your  son  and  heir 
would  do  well  to  alter  their  ways. — No  lord,  no  king,  can  ei\joy 
themselves  more  than  I. — Each  of  the  Scipios  aud  each  of  the 
Catos  had  their  admirers. 

Under  §  502.  Roger  Williams,  and  Oalvert  also,  showed  the 
liberality  of  their  views  by  allowing  freedom  of  conscience  in  relig- 
ious matters. — It  was  Cleopatra,  and  not  Semiramis,  that  killed 
themselves  by  the  bite  of  an  asp. — Powhatan,  as  well  as  Pocahon- 
tas, now  did  all  in  their  power  to  conciliate  the  coloniste. 


204  SYNTAX   OF   PK0N0UN8. 

Undke  §  563.  I  told  both  her  and  you  to  see  the  superintendent 
and  satisfy  themselves. — May  sister  Fanny  and  I  go  to  her  aunt's 
this  afternoon  ? — I  must  have  met  James  and  you,  but  I  did  not 
recognize  either  of  them. 


LESSON  LXXYI. 

PRONOUNS    (CONTINUED).  — FALSE    SYNTAX. 

664:.  A  pronoun  standing  for  two  or  more  singular 
substantives  connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  be  in  the 
singular ;  as,  "  !N'either  Venice  nor  Genoa  retains  the 
proud  position  it  once  held." 

665.  But  if  one  of  the  substantives  is  plural,  it  is  placed  last,  and  the 
pronoun  is  made  plural ;  as,  "Neither  Venice  nor  the  States  of  the  Church 
retain  the  proud  position  they  once  held." 

666.  If  the  substantives  are  of  different  persons,  the  pronoun  must  be 
used  in  the  proper  person  with  each ;  or  the  sentence  must  be  so  altered 
that  the  pronoun  may  be  omitted.  "  Neither  James  nor  I  will  allow  our 
children  to  grow  up  in  ignorance  "  Wrong,  because  cnir  is  plural.  As 
there  is  no  pronoun  applicable  to  both  James  (which  is  third  person)  and  / 
(which  is  first\  use  a  separate  pronoun  for  each :  *'  James  will  not  allow 
his  children  to  grow  up  in  ignorance,  nor  will  I  mine.^ — "  Either  my  wife 
or  I  will  come  for  our  children  on  Tuesday."  The  meaning  here  prevents 
us  from  correcting  as  in  the  last  case  ("  Either  my  wife  will  come  for  her 
children,  or  I  for  mine  "),  as  the  children  belong  to  us  jointly.  We  must 
therefore  get  rid  of  the  pronoun  altogether:  " Either  my  wife  or  I  will 
come  for  the  children  on  Tuesday." 

567.  When  the  substantives  are  of  the  third  person  singular,  but  of  dif- 
ferent genders,  as  the  personal  pronoun  is  the  same  in  the  plural  for  both 
genders,  but  not  in  the  singular,  there  is  a  tendency  to  use  the  plui-al ;  as, 
**  Neither  Alfred  nor  Ellen  were  perfect  in  their  lessons."     "  An  author  or 


564.  In  what  number  is  a  pronoun  that  etande  for  two  or  more  singular  sub- 
•tantives  connected  by  or  or  nor  7  565.  If  one  of  the  substantives  is  plural,  what 
Is  the  rule  ?  666.  If  the  substantives  are  of  different  persons,  what  is  said  of  the 
pronoun  ?  Give  examples  of  the  two  modes  of  correction  euggeeted.  567.  When 
the  substantives  are  of  the  third  person  singular,  but  of  different  genders,  what 
tendency  is  there  I    What  is  the  rule  for  the  proDoon  in  this  case !    What  substi^ 


SYNTAX  OF  PRONOUNS. 

should  not  think  that  the  public  are  bound  to  receive  lAxm  with 
fcTor." 

Theae  sentences  are  wrong.  Substantives  connected  by  or  op  nor  are 
taken  separately  and  require  a  singular  pronoun.  Correct  by  using  the 
pronoun  in  the  proper  gender  with  each ;  as,  "  Neither  was  Alfred  perfect 
in  hi$  lessons,  nor  Ellen  in  /ters.^  Or,  when  it  can  be  done,  use  a  term  of 
common  gender  that  will  embrace  both  the  substantives,  and  let  the  pro- 
noun agree  with  it  in  the  masculine  in  preference ;  as,  "  A  vriter  should 
not  think  that  the  public  are  bound  to  receive  him  with  favor." 

668.  A  noun  denoting  an  inanimate  object  personified  (§  98)  has  gen- 
der, and  a  pronoun  standing  for  such  a  noun  must  agree  with  it  in  gender ; 
as,  "  Famine,  with  Am  wan  cheeks,  gloats  over  Am  victims."  "  Plenty 
tripe  along,  scattering  Aer  fruits  as  the  goes." 

669.  In  a  given  sentence,  pronouns  referring  to  the  same  substantive 
must  be  of  the  same  number  and  the  same  form.  **  T7tou  hast  always  repaid 
me  with  ingratitude,  and  do  you  now  ask  a  greater  favor  than  ever  ?  " 
Wrong,  because  in  the  second  member  the  pronoun  is  changed  to  the 
plural.  Correct  thus :  "  and  dost  thou  now  ask,"  &c  "  You  have  put 
your  hands  to  the  plough,  and  will  ye  now  draw  back  ?  "  Wrong,  because 
in  the  second  member  the  form  of  the  pronoun  is  changed.  Correct  thus : 
"  and  will  you  now  draw  back  ?  " 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 

TJifDER  §  664.  If  Seth  or  Methusaleh  grew  in  wisdom  as  they 
grew  ill  years,  what  knowledge  they  must  finally  have  attained  1 

[Corrected. — If  Seth  or  Methusaleh  grew  in  wisdom  as  he  grew 
in  years,  what  knowledge  hs  must  finally  have  attained  I  T^hey 
must  be  changed  to  A«,  because  it  stands  for  the  singular  substan' 
tives  Seth  and  Methusaleh^  connected  by  or.  J 

Walter  Jones  or  his  brother  William  just  passed  with  their  face 
tied  up,  as  if  they  had  met  with  an  accident. — If  you  want  a  good 
house  or  farm,  I  can  tell  you  where  to  find  them. — Neither  talent 
nor  wealth  should  be  laid  away  in  a  napkin,  by  those  who  are 
fortunate  enough  to  possess  them. — Wo  have  no  evidence  in  their 
public  acts,  that  either  Charles  I.  or  Charles  II.  deemed  it  worth 
their  while  to  consult  the  happiness  of  their  subjects. — Neither 

tutton  I*  taggMted  for  the  labstAntiTM  1  608.  What  is  said  of  a  pronoun  standing 
(br  the  nam*  of  ait  tnanimate  object  peraonlfled  t  6S9.  What  rule  la  laid  down  for 
pronoana  referring  to  the  aamo  •ub«tantive  In  a  given  aentenoe  I  How  U  thia  ml* 
VtolatcU  ill  the  firat  example  I    Uow,  la  the  aeoood  f 


206  FALSE   SYNTAX. 

Plato  nor  Aristotle  thought  it  proper  to  make  known  to  the  world 
at  large  those  more  important  doctrines  which  they  freely  taught 
their  followers. — Peace  can  not  be  restored  till  either  Austria  or 
Hungary  shall  surrender  their  claims. — We  should  not  envy  our 
neighbor  health,  wealth,  or  any  other  blessing,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, should  feel  glad  that  he  possesses  them,  even  though  they 
be  denied  to  us. 

TJndee  §  565.  If  you  want  a  good  house  or  desirable  lots,  I  can 
tell  you  where  to  find  it. — Neither  talent  nor  riches  should  be  laid 
away  in  a  napkin,  by  those  who  are  fortunate  enough  to  possess 
it. — Neither  Plato  nor  the  other  ancient  philosophers  thought  it 
proper  to  make  known  to  the  world  at  large  those  more  important 
doctrines  which  he  freely  taught  his  followers. — Peace  can  not  be 
restored  till  either  the  Hungarians  or  Austria  shall  surrender  its 
claims. 

Under  §  566.  Neither  you  nor  any  honorable  man  ought  to  be 
ashamed  to  ask  the  forgiveness  of  your  friend,  when  you  have 
wronged  him. — Thou  or  I  must  abandon  his  claims. — Neither  he 
nor  you  promised  your  wives  to  return  before  to-morrow. — Here 
is  an  opportunity  for  you  or  me  to  distinguish  ourselves  [to  gain 
distinction]. — Neither  he  nor  you  should  promise  yourselves  suc- 
cess in  such  a  cause. 

Under  §  567.  A  true-hearted  man  or  woman  will  never  insult 
their  inferiors. — Neither  the  king  nor  the  queen  seems  to  concern 
themselves  much  about  the  welfare  of  their  subjects. — No  boy  or 
girl  should  disobey  their  parents. — ^Every  gentleman  and  lady 
should  remember  that  they  are  responsible  for  the  example  they 
set  to  the  world. — If  you  see  my  brother  or  sister,  tell  them  I  will 
not  be  home  to-night. 

Under  §  568.  Spring  trips  along,  scattering  its  blossoms  as  it 
goes. — The  Earth  is  ever  a  bounteous  mother  to  its  children. — 
Time  mows  down  rich  and  poor  alike  with  its  relentless  scythe. — 
Hope  breathes  many  a  delightful  promise  into  the  ears  of  its 
votaries. — How  many  are  wooed  to  destruction  by  Pleasure  with 
its  syren  songs! — There  is  no  orator  so  persuasive  as  Fashion;  it 
has  but  to  open  its  lips,  and  nobody  thinks  of  gainsaying  its  words. 

Under  §  569.  Fame  you  know  to  be  a  dream ;  wilt  thou  then 
barter  thy  soul  for  it? — Let  falsehood  be  a  stranger  to  your  lips,  a 
Stranger  to  thy  heart. — ^Listen  ye  men  of  Rome,  you  who  proudly 


SYNTAX  OF  BELATIYE  PRONOUNS.        207 

call  Romulus  your  father. — ^Fools  may  your  scorn,  but  not  thy  envy 
rftise. 


LESSON  LXXVII. 

BBLATIVE  PU0N0UN8. -FALSE  SYNTAX. 


RULE  Vm.— Relativks. 

670.  A  relative  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person 
and  number. 

A  relative  does  not  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  ease.  This  depends  on 
its  relation  to  some  word  or  words  in  its  own  clause.  Several  of  tlie  re- 
marks in  the  last  two  lessons  apply  to  relatives,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
following 

Examples  orRrLE  VIII — I  vho  [1st,  singular,  agreeing  with  /]  speak. 
— Thou  who  [2nd.  sing.]  speakest. — He  irAo  [8rd,  sing.]  speaks. — We  who 
[Ist,  plural]  speak. — You  who  [2nd,  plu.]  speak. — They  who  [3rd,  plu.] 
speak.^^Many  a  man  that  [3rd,  eing.]  passes  for  a  hero  is  really  a  coward. 
— Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  who  [plural,  agreeing  with  two  singular  antece- 
dents connected  by  and]  arc  always  named  together,  wrote  some  fine  lyrics. 
— This  great  physician  and  surgeon,  who  [sing.,  as  but  one  person  is  de- 
noted by  phyncian  and  itnrgeon]  could  heal  others,  could  not  heal  himself. 
— Every  tree  and  plant  that  [sing.,  agreeing  with  antecedents  preceded  by 
evfry]  blossoms,  testifies  to  the  goodness  of  our  Creator. — You  and  he  and 
I,  who  [Ist  person  preferred]  know  our  lessons,  will  not  be  kept  in. 

671.  When  there  are  two  or  more  sulwtantives,  either  of  which,  as  far 
•s  the  sense  is  concerned,  may  be  the  antecedent,  the  relative  agrees  with 
the  nearest ;  as,  "  I  am  tho  party  that  [3rd,  sing.,  agreeing  with  party,  not 
/]  is  to  blame."  "  Ii  is  I  that  [1st,  sing.,  agreeing  with  /,  not  it]  am  to 
bhune.** 

672.  If  the  antecedent  is  a  clause,  the  relative  is  in  the  third  person, 
<«Dgular ;  if  two  or  more  clauses,  in  the  third,  plural.    **  He  is  witty,  which 

*7a  B«cite  Rule  VIII.,  referring  to  relatives.  On  what  doee  the  caee  of  a 
rvlaUve  depend!  Give  examples  of  the  rule,  and  name  the  antecedent  In  each 
eaee.  671.  When  there  are  two  or  more  auhetantivee,  either  of  which,  as  faraa 
the  aenae  la  coneemed,  may  be  the  anteeedent,  with  which  doe*  the  relatWe  agreal 
Vti,  In  whai  ptnoo  and  nombtr  U  tb«  rriatlve,  if  the  anteoadeut  ia  a  clause  t    If 


208  SYNTAX  OF  EELATIVES. 

[3rd,  sing.]  I  regard  as  no  great  advantage."  "  Whether  the  classics  dis- 
cipline the  mind,  and  whether  an  acquaintance  with  them  is  of  any  practical 
benefit  in  life,  which  [3rd,  plural]  are  both  important  questions,  every 
scholar  must  decide  for  himself." 

573.  The  relative  connects  its  clause  with  the  leading  part  of  the  sen- 
tence. A  conjunction,  therefore,  should  not  be  used  before  a  relative, 
unless  there  are  two  or  more  relative  clauses  to  be  connected.  "Dr. 
iJohnson,  the  author  of  the  Dictionary,  who  [not  and  who]  wrote  the 
•*  Lives  of  the  Poets,'  flourished  in  the  reign  of  George  II.  and  George  III." 
But,  if  there  are  two  relative  clauses,  and  maybe  used;  as,  "  Dr.  Johnson, 
who  wrote  the  Dictionary  and  whose  '  Lives  of  the  Poets '  has  been  much 
admired,  ranks  high  as  a  critic." 

574.  A  sentence  must  not  commence  with  a  relative  referring  to  an 
antecedent  in  a  previous  sentence.  Use  this  or  these  instead.  "  This 
[not  which]  having  been  done,  we  again  set  sail." 

575.  Who,  which,  that. —  Who,  as  already  stated, 
relates  to  persons,  or  animals  and  things  personified ; 
which,  to  animals  and  things  only. 

576.  That  is  equally  applicable  to  persons,  animals, 
and  things.  It  must  be  used  in  stead  of  who  or 
which, 

1.  "When  both  persons  and  things  are  referred  to ; 
as,  "  Look  at  the  artists  and  master-pieces  that  ancient 
Greece  produced."  Here  neither  who  nor  which  would 
be  applicable  to  both  the  antecedents. 

2.  "When  who  is  the  antecedent,  to  prevent  repe- 
tition ;  as,  "  Who  that  hateth  his  brother  can  love 
God?" 

3.  After  a  superlative ;  as,  "  Hannibal  was  the  dead- 
liest enemy  that  Rome  ever  had." 

677.  JTiat  is  also  generally  preferred  to  who  or  which j  1.  After  same^ 
all,  and  the  adjectives  very  and  no ;  as,  "  Washington  was  the  very  man 

the  antecedent  consists  of  two  or  more  clauses  f  573.  When  only  may  a  conjunc- 
tion be  used  before  a  relative  ?  Why  is  this  ?  574.  With  what  must  a  sentence 
not  commence  ?  575.  To  what  does  who  relate  I  Which  7  Thai  f  576.  What  an- 
tecedents require  the  use  of  (hat  in  stead  of  trAo  or  which?  After  what  deprpe 
must  that  be  used  f    577.  In  what  three  oases  is  that  generally  preferred  to  wJio  or 


SYNTAX    OF   RELATIVES.  209 

tkat  the  colonies  needed.*^  2.  When  the  antecedent  follows  it  m,  it  tmu, 
kc;  aa,  "  /<  tD<u  I  that  knocked."  3.  When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective 
noun ;  as,  "  The  committee  that  was  appointed  immediately  opened  a  sub- 
scription." 

678.  TJtat  implies  a  closer  connection  with  the  antecedent  than  who  or 
which.  It  is  therefore  generally  used  when  the  relative  clause  restriota 
and  is  essential  to  the  meaning  to  be  conveyed.  But  it  must  not  be  used 
when  the  relative  clause  merely  states  some  additional  fact,  and  can  be 
left  out  without  injury  to  the  sense.  Thus: — "A  man  that  [restrictive] 
possessed  great  eloquence  could  lead  the  Athenians  at  his  will."  *'  Pericles, 
v>ho  [not  that,  because  additive]  possessed  great  eloquence,  could  lead  the 
Athenians  at  his  will.** 

679.  When  the  relative  refers  to  the  antecedent  simply  as  a  name  or 
character,  which  must  be  used,  not  who  or  that ;  as,  "  Such  were  the  trials 
of  Job,  which  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  another  name  for  patience." 
•'  Solomon  appears  to  the  greatest  advantage  as  a  judge,  which  he  was 
even  to  the  meanest  of  his  subjects." 

580.  Position. — ^The  relative,  with  its  clause,  should 
stand  immediately  after  its  antecedent ;  as,  "  Those 
who  break  the  law  deserve  punishment,"  not  "  Those 
deserve  punishment  who  break  the  law." 

FALSE    syntax. 

Undkb  §  673,  574.  The  elephant,  the  largest  of  quadrupeds, 
and  which  sometimes  attiiins  the  height  of  fifteen  feet,  can  easily 
draw  a  load  that  six  horses  can  not  move. — The  whig  candidate 
for  the  presidency  was  Taylor,  the  hero  of  Buena  Vista,  and  who 
was  elected  by  a  small  minority.  Who  dying  before  his  term  of 
office  expired,  Fillmore  became  president. — In  February,  1848,  a 
mechanic,  digging  a  mill-race  for  Captiin  Sutter,  a  Swiss,  and  who 
had  settled  in  the  valley  of  the  Sacramento,  discovered  among  the 
sand  some  particles  of  gold.  Which  news  having  spread,  thou- 
sands at  once  flocked  to  California  from  the  Atlantic  states. 

Undkb  §  576.  There  were  not  cars  enough  to  transport  the 
passengers  and  baggage  which  had  arrived  at  this  point. — The 

tekich?  67S.  Which  rrUtive  iinplio*  the  dcxwct  connection  with  the  »nteccdont I 
When,  thervfore,  !■  that  ircnermlly  u»od  I  When  roust  It  not  be  usedt  679.  "WTien 
miMt  tehicA  be  a««d,  and  not  uho  or  that  7  UO.  What  U  th»  proper  poattion  for 
Iho  nUUve  and  ita  olaoae  t 


210  FALSE   SYNTAX. 

most  valuable  article  whicli  is  produced  by  insects,  is  silk.— 
Who,  I  ask,  who  looks  upon  the  heavens  studded  with  stars,  can 
doubt  that  there  is  a  God  ? — Boas  are  the  largest  serpents  which 
are  known. — I  could  not  help  admiring  the  good-natured  country- 
people  and  the  baskets  of  splendid  fruit,  with  which  the  market 
was  filled. 

Under  §  577.  I  am  the  same  man  which  I  was ;  it  is  you  who 
have  altered. — There  is  no  man  who  sinneth  not. — He  who  does 
all  which  he  can,  should  be  commended,  though  it  be  but  little. — 
JSTations  which  do  not  foster  education  can  not  hope  to  prosper. — 
Birds  which  live  on  animal  food  are  called  carnivorous. — Birds  of 
paradise,  that  are  much  prized  for  their  beautiful  plumage,  are 
found  chiefly  in  New  Guinea. — The  family  whom  I  visited,  can  not 
be  the  same  which  you  refer  to. 

Undeb  §  580.  He  is  a  common-place  man,  that  has  no  friends 
and  no  enemies. — A  man  should  first  count  the  cost,  who  is  about 
to  build  a  house. — Alfred  freed  England  from  the  Danes,  who 
showed  as  much  courage  in  war  as  wisdom  in  peace. — Even  those 
philosophers  fell  far  short  of  modern  enlightenment,  who  ad- 
vanced furthest  in  the  search  for  wisdom  in  ancient  times. — Those 
evil-disposed  persons  should  be  driven  from  society,  who  take 
pleasure  in  slandering  their  neighbors. — On  this  voyage,  the  cap- 
tain treated  the  sailors  very  harshly,  who  had  never  been  known 
to  do  so  before. 


LESSON  LXXYIII. 

PRONOUNS  (CONTINUED). -FALSE  SYNTAX. 

581.  When  two  or  more  relative  clauses  referring  to 
the  same  antecedent  are  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
the  same  relative  must  be  used  ;  as,  "  No  man  that 
loves  his  family,  or  that  [not  who]  regards  his  own 
happiness,  will  give  way  to  intemperance." 

But,  when  one  of  the  clauses  is  restrictive  and  the  other  not,  that  is 

581,  What  rule  i«  laid  down  reBpectlncr  two  or  more  relative  clanses  referring 
to  the  same  antesedeut?    When  one  of  the  clausea  is  restrictive  and  the  other 


SYNTAX    OF    PKONOUNS.  211 

used  in  the  restrictlre  clause,  which  ia  placed  first,  and  who  or  which 
witliout  a  conjunction  in  the  other;  as,  ''The  part  that  was  Icll,  which 
was  more  valuable  in  appearance  than  in  reality,  was  given  to  Adlier* 
bal." 

5S2.  Do  not  use  the  adverb  where  for  in  which^  or 
tphence  for  from  which,  unless  place  is  referred  to  lit- 
erally. 

We  say,  "  Travellers  are  in  doubt  as  to  the  spot  where  Palmyra  once 
stooil."  "  The  harbor  whence  we  sailed  was  {^ay  with  flags."  But,  "  They 
presented  a  document  t«  which  [not  wherc'\  their  grievances  were  set 
forth."  "The  premises /ro7n  which  [not  whence^  they  drew  these  conclu- 
sions, were  false." 

583.  Do  not  omit  a  preposition  and  relative,  con- 
necting parts  of  a  sentence  ;  as,  "  The  winter  the  Pil- 
grims landed,  was  remarkable  for  its  severity."  Sup- 
ply in  which  after  winter, 

584.  Do  not  make  a  pronoun  stand  for  an  adjective 
or  a  finite  verb. 

This  rule  is  violated  in  the  following  sentences  : — "  Never  be  ungrate- 
ful, for  this  is  one  of  tlie  most  heartless  of  sins."  "  He  declared  that  he 
would  not  retreat,  which  would  be  equivalent  to  giving  up  the  cause  as 
lost,"  Correct  thus : — "  Never  be  ungrateful,  for  ingratit^uie  is  one  of  the 
moBt  heartless  of  sins."  "  He  declared  that  he  would  not  retreat,  for  that 
to  do  so  would  be  equivalent  to  giving  up  the  cause  as  lost." 

585.  Do  not  use  the  pronoim  them  for  the  adjective 
those,  or  the  pronoun  what  for  the  conjunction  that. 
"  I  will  never  believe  but  what  [thaf]  you  might  have 
saved  them  [those']  trees." 

586.  Pronouns  must  be  so  used  that  there  may  bo 
no  doubt  for  what  they  stand.     Do  not,  therefore,  make 

BOi,  what  ia  the  mle  f  682.  When  only  mny  where  be  nsed  for  in  whieh,  and 
itkmtt  fotfntm  which  J  683.  ^Vhst  must  not  be  omitted  ?  684.  For  what  mast  u 
proooon  not  bo  made  to  stand  f  Olve  examplen  of  the  violation  of  this  rule,  and 
the  modes  of  eorreetion.  686.  For  what  mast  them  and  what  not  be  naedt 
688.  What  Is  eeeenttal  in  the  uee  of  pronouns  f  What  rule  is  laid  down  reepeot- 
Ing  peraooal  pronoona  t    Give  example*  of  the  vtolation  of  this  ml*,  and  show  how 


212  SYNTAX   OF   PRONOUNS. 

the  same  personal  pronoun  represent  different  persons 
or  things  in  the  same  sentence. 

Errors  of  this  kind  are  frequent,  and  may  be  corrected  in  different 
ways.  "The  farmer  told  the  lawyer  that  ^2S  ox  had  gored  his  horse." 
Say  *  Tour  ox  has  gored  my  horse,''  or  '  Mi/  ox  has  gored  your  horse,^  aa 
the  case  may  be.  "  Pope  wrote  to  Addison  that  he  was  aware  of  his  secret 
efforts  to  injure  his  reputation,"  Say  of  the  secret  efforts  of  the  latter, 
<fec.  "  A  man  does  not  always  appreciate  his  friend's  kindness,  when  he 
sacrifices  his  comfort  to  promote  his  happiness."  Say  Jiis  friends'  kind- 
ness, when  they  sacrifice  their  comfort  to  promote  his  happiness. 

"We  were  struck  with  the  grandeur  of  the  scenery  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  this  cascade,  and  could  not  help  admiring  z7."  Admiring  what? 
The  grandeur,  the  scenery,  or  the  cascade  ?  The  sentence  must  be  altered 
so  as  to  determine  which  is  meant.  "  We  could  not  help  admiring  the 
striking  grandeur  of  the  scenery  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  cascade.** 
Or,  "  Struck  with  its  grandeur,  we  could  not  help  admiring  the  scenery 
in  the  neighborhood  of  this  cascade."  Or,  "We  could  not  help  admiring 
this  cascade,  which  was  surrounded  by  scenery  of  striking  grandeur." 

687.  A  pronoun  should  not  be  used  with  its  substan- 
tive, in  a  relation  which  the  substantive  may  itself 
properly  sustain. 

"  Regulus  having  reached  Rome,  he  urged  the  senate  not  to  accept  the 
terms  proposed  by  Carthage."  Omit  he,  and  thus  make  Regidus  the  sub- 
ject. "  Whatever  we  desire,  we  are  very  apt  to  hope  it."  Omit  it.  "  It 
is  hard  indeed,  the  lot  of  the  poor  when  they  are  attacked  by  sickness.* 
Say,  "  Hard  indeed  is  the  lot  of  the  poor,  when,"  &c. 

FALSE     SYNTAX. 

FxDER  §  581.  A  ruler  that  administers  the  laws  with  justice 
and  who  consults  the  happiness  of  his  subjects,  will  always  be  re- 
spected. 

[Corrected. — A  ruler  that  administers  the  laws  with  justice  and 
that  consults  the  happiness  of  his  subjects,  will  always  be  respected. 
Who  must  be  changed  to  that,  because  that  is  used  in  the  previous 


ft  may  be  corrected.  Show  what  is  wrong  in  the  sentence  We  teere  struck  m'lh  the 
grandeur  of  the  scenery  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  cascade,  and  could  not  help  ad- 
miring it.  Alter  the  eentence  in  three  ways,  so  as  to  determine  its  meanixuf 
687.  State  the  rule  relating  to  a  pronoun  and  its  subataative. 


FALSE  SYNTAX.  213 

relative  clause  witli  reference  to  the  same  antecedent,  the  two 
clauses  being  connected  by  a  conjunction.] 

Such  travellers  as  have  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  Africa 
and  who  have  given  us  an  account  of  their  explorations,  repre- 
i»ent  it  as  abounding  in  game. — What  surprises  me  most,  and 
which  may  well  surprise  cvery-body,  is  that  men  will  so  far  lose 
*ight  of  their  own  interests  as  to  fall  into  intemperance. — Persons 
that  have  been  blind  from  their  birth,  but  who  have  opportu- 
nities for  instruction,  can  bo  taught  to  read  with  facility. — The 
cotton  that  is  raised  on  these  islands,  and  which  always  commands 
a  better  price  than  the  ordmary  qualities,  is  one  of  the  staples  of 
the  state. 

Undkb  §  582,  688.  Can  yon  remember  the  book  where  you  saw 
the  passage  ? — There  are  characters  where  there  seems  to  be  no 
redeeming  feature. — It  is  useless  to  speak  of  the  authors  whence 
Milton  drew  his  inspiration. — Gibbon  sometimes  utters  senti- 
ments whence  we  can  derive  no  good. — He  has  produced  a 
volume  well  calculated  to  interest  the  class  it  is  intended. — 
What  else  could  Burgoyne  do  in  the  circumstances  he  was 
placed  ? 

Under  §  584.  When  there  are  too  many  laws,  they  are  con- 
stantly >-iolated ;  which  always  has  a  bad  effect  on  the  commu- 
nity.— We  love  to  see  a  man  modest,  which  is  generally  a  sign 
of  merit. — After  an  illness  of  a  few  days,  Washington  died ; 
which  was  the  cause  of  great  sorrow  to  the  country  at  large. — 
Utmuibal  wintered  at  Capua,  which  proved  tlie  ruin  of  his 
army. 

Under  §  686.  Jackson  had  no  fears  but  what  he  would  pre- 
vent the  further  advance  of  the  British. — We  have  bought  some 
of  them  French  roses. — Do  you  like  them  ftichsias  as  well  as  ours? 
— I  have  no  apprehensions  but  w^bat  he  will  be  in  time. 

Under  §  586.  Helen  sent  Mary  a  pot  of  jelly,  which  she  said 
she  had  made  for  her  husband. — No  man  should  allow  another 
to  commit  a  crime,  if  he  can  prevent  him. — Why  did  not  the  friends 
of  Hamilton  and  Burr  do  their  best  to  prevent  the  duel  between 
them? — The  simplicity  of  the  style  maintained  throughout  this 
book,  has  always  led  me  to  admire  it. 

Under  §  687.  Williimi  and  Mary,  they  have  no  love  for  study. 
— It  is  singular  the  labor  tliat  men  will  undergo  to  avoid  labor. — 


214  THE   AETICLE. 

Kossuth  having  taken  refuge  in  Turkey,  he  was  now  for  a  time 
safe. — It  is  not  always  right,  what  a  man  thinks  to  be  right. — 
There  is  no  politician,  whom,  however  high  he  may  stand  in  the 
eyes  of  the  world,  we  shall  not  find  him  selfish  and  unscrupulous. 


LESSON  LXXIX. 

ARTICLES, -FALSE    SYNTAX. 


RULE  YIII.— Articles. 

588.  An  article  relates  to  tlie  word  whose  meaning 
it  limits. 

Examples. — A  tie  the  holiest  that  can  bind  men  together. — The  lexs 
we  talk,  the  less  trouble  we  are  likely  to  fall  into. — The  prodigal  [persons] 
often  come  to  want. — Charles  th£  Bald  [king]. — If  all  the  planets  are  in- 
habited, what  a  countless  throng  of  living  beings  must  pass  before  the 
Creator's  eye ! 

589.  The  articles  must  not  be  interchanged.  "  He  does  not  look  like 
the  man  of  talent."  Change  the  to  a,  because  no  particular  man  of  talent 
is  referred  to. 

590.  An  or  a  must  not  be  used  with  a  plural  noun. 
"  He  borrowed  a  tongs  from  a  hut  a  long  ways  off." 
Correct  thus  : — "  He  borrowed  a  pair  of  tongs  from  a 
hut  a  great  distance  off." 

591.  No  article  must  be  joined  to  nouns  used  in 
their  widest  sense,  or  to  the  names  of  qualities,  passions, 
states  of  being,  &c.,  taken  generally,  and  not  as  belong- 
ing to  a  particular  object. 

We  say,  "  Lead  us  not  into  temptation  [not  the  temptation']  ;  deliver 
ti3  from  evil  [not  the  evi7]."     But  we  speak  of  "  the  temptations  of  the 

588.  Recite  Rule  VIII.,  relating  to  articlea.  Give  examples,  and  In  each  tell 
to  what  the  article  relates.  589.  In  the  sentence  He  does  not  look  like  the  man  of 
talent,  what  change  should  be  made,  and  why  ?  590.  With  what  must  an  or  a  not 
be  used?  591.  To  what  nouns  must  an  article  not  be  joined?  When  must  the 
article  be  prefixed  to  the  names  of  qualities,  passions,  states  of  feeling,  &c.f 


THE   ARTICLE.  215 

ux)rld»''  "  the  evil  of  sin."  So;  "  Patience  is  a  virtue ;  *'  but  *'  the  patience 
of  Job.**  When  we  limit  the  meaning  of  the  noun  m  a  particular  object 
with  the  preposition  o/*,  we  must  introduce  the  article. 

692.  No  article  must  be  joined  to  the  names  of  the  arts  and  sciences, 
or  words  used  merely  as  titles ;  as,  '^  Columbus  was  well  versed  in  geog- 
riphy  and  mathematics  [not  the  geography  and  the  mathematics].''''  "  The 
•upreme  executive  officer  in  Russia  is  called  Czar  [not  a  Czar].'''' 

593.  When  two  or  more  nouns  come  together  in  the  same  construction, 
the  article  need  not  be  repeated  unless  they  are  contrasted ;  as,  "  The 
energy  and  ambition  of  Napoleon  were  equalled  only  by  his  selhshness.** 
But,  "  We  admire  the  energy,  but  not  the  ambition,  of  Napoleon.**  The 
article  is  here  repeated,  because  the  nouns  are  contrasted. 

594.  If  one  of  the  nouns  does  not  admit  an  article  before  it,  place  it 
first;  as,  '*  Mathematics  and  the  classics  should  both  be  studied  as  a  men* 
tal  discipline,** — not  the  claxmies  and  mathematics^  for  then  the  article 
would  appear  to  limit  the  meaning  of  matfiematics  also. 

595.  In  making  a  comparison,  if  we  refer  to  one  per- 
son or  thing  viewed  in  different  characters  or  capacities, 
we  must  use  the  article  but  once ;  if  we  refer  to  two 
persons  or  things,  we  use  it  twice. 

"  Shakspcare  was  a  greater  poet  than  actor.**  Here  we  refer  to  but  one 
person,  and  say  that  he  was  greater  as  a  poet  than  as  an  actor.  If  we  re- 
peat the  article — "Shakspeare  was  a  greater  poet  than  an  actor" — we 
mean  than  an  actor  teas,  and  refer  to  two  different  parties. 

696.  So,  when  a  noun  is  preceded  by  two  or  more  adjectives  connected 
by  a  conjunction,  if  but  one  person  or  thing  is  referred  to,  place  the  article 
before  the  first  adjective  only  ;  but,  if  more  than  one,  use  the  article 
with  each  adjective.  If  we  mean  one  spot,  partly  black  and  partly  blue, 
we  say  *'  a  black  and  blue  spot  ** ;  but,  if  we  refer  to  two  spots,  one  all 
black  and  the  other  all  blue,  we  say  *'a  black  and  a  blue  spot  **. 

597.  Few  means  no<  many;  little  meAns  not  much.  By  putting  the 
article  a  before  them,  we  make  their  meaning  positive ;  a  /etr,  a  little^ 
mean  $o>Me.     It  is  better  to  have  a  few  virtues  than  few  virtues,  and  a  little 

BBS,  To  what  else  most  nn  article  not  he  Joined  t  608.  When  two  or  more  nonnii 
oome  tofether  to  the  Mme  conBtruetion,  when  may  we  uae  the  article  l>ut  once, 
•nd  when  roost  we  repeat  Itt  6M.  What  mast  be  done,  if  one  of  the  nouna  does 
oot  sdmit  an  artlele  before  it  t  606.  In  maklngr  a  oompartaon,  when  most  we  ate 
the  article  bat  ooee,  and  when  mast  we  repeat  it  f  600.  When  a  noon  is  prectsled 
by  two  or  more  adjeetlvea  connected  by  a  conjunction,  wbco  must  the  article  he 
used  before  the  flrit  a4)«otiTe  only,  and  whan  before  eaeb  f    601.  What  doee/ew 


216  THE   ARTICLE. 

money  than  little  money.  A  person  may  be  commended  for  having  few 
vices,  but  not  for  having  a  few. 

598.  Arrangement. — The  article  generally  precedes 
its  noun,  but  sometimes  follows  it ;  as,  the  fom-tli  chap- 
ter, cJiafpter  the  foui-tli. 

599.  "When  both  an  article  and  an  adjective  are  joined  to  a  noun,  the 
usual  order  is  article^  adjective,  noun  ;  rarely,  as  in  the  last  example,  noun, 
article,  adjective. 

600.  The  adjective  stands  before  the  article  and  noun,  when  the  expres- 
sions all  the,  both  the,  many  a,  such  a,  what  a,  are  used ;  as,  both  the 
hemispheres. 

601.  When  the  adjective  is  modified  by  as,  hoiv,  so,  or  too,  the  article 
stands  immediately  before  the  noun,  and  the  adjective  with  its  modifier 
either  precedes  both  or  follows  both ;  as,  too  temble  a  doom,  or  a  doom  too 
terrible.  When  the  adjective  is  modified  by  any  other  adverb,  the  order 
is  either  article,  adjective,  noun,  or  better  article,  noun,  adjective.  We  say 
a  dazzlingly  bright  eye,  or  better  an  eye  dazzlingly  bright. 

602.  When  the  adjective  is  modified  by  several  words,  the  article  pre- 
cedes the  noun,  and  the  adjective  with  its  modifying  words  follows  it ;  as, 
a  character  lovely  in  every  point  of  view. 

FALSE    syntax. 

Under  §  589.  A  diphthong  is  the  combination  of  two  vowels  in 
one  syllable. 

[Corrected. — A  diphthong  is  a  combination  of  two  vowels  in 
one  syllable.  7%e  must  be  changed  to  a,  because  a  diphthong, 
one  of  the  kind  but  no  particular  one,  is  defined.] 

By  the  variation  of  the  compass  is  meant  a  deviation  in  the 
direction  of  the  needle  from  due  north. — ^Few  flowers  are  so  beau- 
tiful as  a  dahlia. — An  eagle  is  the  emblem  of  America. — A  whale 
is  the  largest  of  fish. — Critics  are  not  agreed  as  to  what  animal 
Job  means,  when  he  speaks  of  a  leviathan. — She  is  entitled  to  the 
third  of  her  husband's  property. 

mean  ?  Wliat  does  little  mean  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  putting  a  before  few  and 
little  7  Illustrate  this.  598.  What  ie  the  usual  position  of  the  article  ?  599.  When 
both  an  article  and  an  adjective  are  joined  to  a  noun,  what  is  the  usual  order  ?  600. 
In  what  expressions  does  the  adjective  precede  the  article  and  noun  ?  601.  What  is 
the  order,  when  the  adjective  is  modified  by  as,  hou>,  so,  or  too  ?  What  is  the  order 
when  the  adjective  is  modified  by  any  other  adverb  t  602.  Wben  the  adjective  i« 
modified  by  several  words,  what  is  the  order  I 


FALSE   BYNTAX.  217 

Under  §  590.  I  have  just  ordered  a  splendid  regalia. — About 
this  time,  people  were  alarmed  by  a  singular  j)henomena  in  the 
rity. — The  crime  was  committed  in  a  thick  woods. — I  can  not  cut 
with  such  a  dull  scissors. — When  you  go  to  market,  buy  mo  a  hea 
and  chickens. 

Under  §  591,  592.  The  apteryx  is  a  curious  kind  of  a  bird  with- 
out the  wings. —  Which  must  not  be  used  when  a  reference  is  made 
to  persona. — The  law  is  just,  but  it  operates  hard  in  the  particular 
cases. — Neither  the  famine  nor  the  pestilence  destroys  as  mauy  as 
the  sword. — Cresar  was  now  again  saluted  as  the  dictator. 

Under  §  593,  594.  Europeans  can  stand  the  heat,  but  not  ma- 
laria, of  Africa. — It  is  the  justice,  as  much  as  wisdom,  of  a  magis- 
trate, that  we  admire. — The  law  and  politics  engaged  his  attention 
by  turns. — The  dahlia,  as  well  as  fuchsia,  is  a  native  of  America. 

Under  §  595.  A  mastitf  makes  a  better  watch-dog  than  spaniel. 
— Many  a  boy  that  is  sent  to  college  would  make  a  better  black- 
smith than  a  scliolar. — A  German  acquires  the  English  language 
more  easily  than  Italian. — Michael  Angelo  was  as  great  a  painter 
as  a  sculptor. 

Under  §  596.  Farmer  Ball  has  a  black  and  white  cow,  and  lets 
them  both  run  on  the  road. — A  black  and  a  white  cow  was  run 
over  by  the  locomotive  last  Tuesday. — The  past  and  present  con- 
dition of  Greece  present  quite  a  contrast. — The  upper  and  lower 
cities  have  a  very  ditterent  appearance. — There  is  a  black  and  a 
blue  spot  where  I  struck  my  arm. 

Under  §  597.  I  am  happy  to  say  that  he  has  little  sense  of  shame 
left. — We  can  point  with  honest  pride  to  few  American  sculptors. — • 
They  have  run  through  their  property,  and  now  have  a  little  lefU 


LESSON  LXXX. 

ADJECTIVES. -PALBE  BYNTAX 


RULE  X.— AojEcnvKs. 

603.  An  adjective  relates  to  the  substantive  whose 
meaning  it  qualifies  or  limits. 

008.  RMite  Rule  X.,  relating  to  •dJeoUves.    Olve  examples,  end  in  eaeh  tgll 
10 


218  CONSTRUCTION   OF   ADJECTIVES. 

Ettamples. — Truth  is  eternal. —  We  are  all  mortal. — To  retreat  is  int- 
possible. — TTiat  the  best  printing-presses  are  made  in  the  United  States  is 
certain. — The  -ungrateful  [persons']  are  inexcusable. — To  be  [a]  virtuous 
[man]  is  to  be  [a]  happy  [man]. 

604.  Use  this  and  that  with  singular  nouns  only,  these  and  those  only 
with  plurals.  Say  this  sort  of  men^  not  these  sort,  because  sort  is  singu- 
lar; these  tidings,  not  this  tidings,  because  tidings  is  plural. 

605.  This  here  and  these  ^ere,  that  there  and  those  ^ere,  are  gross  errors. 
Correct  by  omitting  the  adverbs — this  boy,  not  this  here  boy. 

606.  Few  me2in&  not  many  ;  little  vc^eans  not  much.  Few,  fewer,  fe-ioest^ 
are  therefore  used  with  reference  to  things  numbered ;  Utile,  less,  leasts 
with  reference  to  quantities.  "  There  can  not  be  feioer  than  a  hundred 
persons  present."     "  It  can  not  weigh  less  than  a  hundred  pounds." 

607.  Wliole  implies  entireness  of  parts.  To  imply  entireness  of  num- 
ber, we  must  use  all.  We  say  the  whole  population,  but  aJl  the  inhabi' 
tants.  Whole  villages  may  be  destroyed  in  a  country,  yet  some  may  es- 
cape ;  if  all  the  villages  are  destroyed,  none  escape. 

608.  Adjectives,  though  they  have  the  form  of  participles  or  are  de. 
rived  from  them,  can  not  govern  the  objective  case.  If  an  objective  fol- 
lows them,  it  depends  on  a  preposition,  and  this  preposition  should  gen- 
erally be  expressed.  Say  conduct  unbecoming  to  a  gentleman,  not  unbe- 
coming a  gentleman. 

609.  Arrangement. — When  several  adjectives  are 
joined  to  a  noun,  if  all  refer  to  it  alike,  they  are  gener- 
ally arranged  according  to  their  length,  the  shortest 
first,  and  connected  by  a  conjunction  ;  as,  "  a  graceful, 
beautiful,  and  intelligent  girl  ". 

But  sometimes  an  adjective  forms  with  a  noun  one 
complex  idea  that  can  be  modified  by  another  adjec- 
tive, and  this  again  by  another.  In  such  cases,  the 
adjectives   are  not  connected  by  a  conjunction,  and 

to  what  the  adjective  relates.  604  With  what  muBt  this  and  that  be  used  f  With 
what,  these  and  those  1  605.  What  expressions  are  pronounced  gross  errors  ?  How 
are  they  to  be  corrected!  606.  To  what  we  fett,  fewer,  fewest  applied,  and  to 
what  little,  less,  least?  607.  WTiat  is  the  difference  of  meaning  between  whole  and 
a/17  lUnetrate  this.  608.  Is  an  adjective  capable  of  governing  »  What  should  be 
expressed  after  an  adjective,  to  govern  the  objective  case  !  609.  When  several  ad- 
jectives refer  alike  to  a  noun,  in  what  order  are  they  generally  arranged  ?  In  what 
case  must  the  adjectives  not  be  connected  by  a  conjunction  f  How  must  they  then 
be  arranged  ?    In  what  order  do  they  generally  stand,  aa  regards  their  meanlDgl 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  2VJ 

must  be  so  arranged  that  each  may  properly  modify 
the  complex  idea  conveyed  by  the  adjectives  and  noun 
which  follow. 

Adjectives  denoting  material  generally  stand  nearest  the  noun,  tlien 
thoee  denoting  color,  then  age,  then  ordinary  qualities :  a.^,  ^'  a  hand:jome, 
new,  white  wooden  cottage ; "  *'  a  well-formed,  spirited,  young  iron-grej 
bonw ; "  "  a  gloomy,  dilapidated  old  building  ". 

FALSE     SYNTAX. 

UxDER  §  604.  Napoleon  was  rapid  m  his  movements,  and  by 
these  means  surprised  his  enemies. 

[Corrected. — Napoleon  was  rapid  in  his  movements,  and  bj 
this  means  surprised  his  enemies.  These  must  be  changed  to  ihisj 
because,  but  one  means  being  spoken  of,  means  is  singular.] 

Put  that  ashes  in  the  barrel. — I  can  not  help  thinking  of  those 
bad  news  you  brought. — ^After  you  have  bought  a  gallon  of  those 
good  molasses,  take  this  spectacles  to  the  silver-smith's,  to  get 
them  mended. — For  this  last  ten  days,  she  has  suffered  from 
neuralgia. — Old  houses  are  infested  with  rats  and  mice,  and  this 
vermin  sometimes  do  great  damage  to  the  walls. — None  of  those 
kind  of  persons  will  be  admitted. 

Under  §  605.  I  do  not  like  these  'ere  coarse-pointed  pens. — 
Set  out  those  'ere  onions  in  this  here  bed. — What  has  become  of 
tJiat  there  friend  of  yours? 

Undeb  §  60G,  607.  I  have  little  fears  on  that  subject.— She 
dislikes  visitors;  the  less  she  has,  the  better  it  suits  her. — In 
this  retired  spot,  you  have  the  least  possible  interruptions. — No 
less  than  forty-seven  scholars  were  engaged  on  our  standard 
translation  of  the  Bible. — If  less  than  twenty  members  are  pres- 
ent, no  business  can  be  done. — The  whole  waters  around  New- 
foundland teem  with  fish. — All  the  families  in  New  York  were 
attacked  by  the  cholera;  very  few  escaped  altogether. — The  whole 
details  are  harrowing  in  the  extreme. 

Under  §  608.  Be  sparing  flattery,  when  you  are  in  the  com- 
pany of  sensible  people. — Some  persons  are  so  vile  as  to  bf»  utterly 
undeserving  notice. — We  expect  from  you  such  deportment  as  is 
becoming  your  position  in  life. — Parties  most  deserving  the  aid 
i)f  tlio  charitable  are  frequently  overlooked. 


220  CONSTRUCTION   OF   ADJECTIVES. 

Under  §  609.  An  industrious,  obliging,  faithful,  and  smart 
servant,  is  a  rarity. — I  found  her  an  iutelligent  and  young  lady. — 
The  company  have  just  erected  a  brick  fine  four-story  building. — 
Here  is  a  white  fragrant  rose. — We  saw  a  number  of  rusty  singu- 
lar copper  old  coins. — They  have  presented  their  minister  a  new 
black  handsome  cloth  coat. 


LESSON   LXXXI. 

ADJECTIVES   (CONTINUED),  — FALSE   SYNTAX. 

610.  Adjectives  whose  meaning  precludes  the  idea 
of  comparison  must  not  be  compared.  Kor  must  they 
be  used  with  Tnore^  inost^  less,  least,  so,  or  any  other 
adverb  implying  difference  of  degrees  in  the  quality 
denoted. 

An  adjective  already  in  the  comparative  or  superlative  degree  must 
not  be  made  the  basis  of  a  new  comparison. 

Do  not  say,  the  chiefest  beauty,  a  truer  statement,  so  faultless  a  char- 
acter, the  fartherest  house,  a  more  nearer  view,  the  lea^t  wisest  course. 
Correct  by  omitting  the  termination  or  adverb  that  implies  comparison ; 
or  by  substituting  an  adjective  that  may  properly  be  compared.  Thus  : 
the  chief  beauty,  a  more  correct  statement,  a  character  so  nearly  faultless^ 
the  farthest  house,  a  nearer  view,  the  least  wise  course. 

611.  In  comparing  two  objects,  use  the  comparative 
degree ;  in  comparing  more  than  two  at  once,  the 
superlative :  as,  "  the  elder  of  the  two  brothers," 
"  the  eldest  of  the  family  ".  "  Asia  is  larger  than  Eu- 
rope." "  Asia  is  the  largest  of  the  grand  divisions  of 
the  earth." 

The  comparative  degree  is  used  when  an  object  is  compared  with  any 


610.  What  adjectives  mast  not  be  compared  ?  With  what  words,  also,  mnst 
euch  adjectives  not  be  used  ?  What  rule  is  laid  down  with  respect  to  adjectives 
already  in  the  comparative  or  superlative  f  According  to  these  rules,  what  are  we 
forbidden  to  say  ?  How  must  we  correct  such  expressions  ?  611.  In  comparing 
objects,  when  must  the  comparative  degree  be  used,  and  when  the  superlative  i 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   ADJECTIVES.  221 

numbor  of  others,  provided  they  arc  taken  separately ;  as,  "  Asia  is  largef 
than  Europe,  Africa,  or  North  America."  "  Asia  is  larger  than  any  other 
grand  division." 

612.  After  the  comparative  degree,  use  other  with 
the  latter  of  the  terms  compared,  if  it  includes  the 
former,  and  only  tfien. 

"  The  Amazon  is  longer  than  any  river.'*  The  Amazon  being  a  river, 
the  Litter  of  the  terms  compared,  rivtr^  includes  the  former,  Amazon  i 
and  we  assert  that  the  Amazon  is  longer  than  itself.  Correct  by  intro- 
ducing the  word  other^  to  exclude  the  former  term :  "  The  Amazon  is  longer 
than  any  oiher  river." 

"  The  Amazon  is  longer  than  any  other  river  of  Europe."  Here  the 
Amazon  is  not  compared  with  rivers  in  general,  but  with  the  rivers  of 
Europe.  As  it  is  not  itself  a  river  of  Europe,  the  latter  term  compared 
does  not  include  the  former,  and  other  must  be  omitted. 

613.  After  the  Buperlative  degree,  neither  other  nor 
any  must  be  used  with  the  latter  of  the  terras  com- 
pared ;  this  latter  term  must  include  the  former. 

"The  Amazon  is  the  longest  of  all  other  rivers."  "The  Amazon  is 
the  longest  of  any  river  in  the  world."  Both  these  sentences  are  wrong, 
because  the  latter  term  compared  does  not  include  the  former.  Say,  "  The 
Amazon  is  the  longest  of  rivers ;  "  or,  of  all  rivers. 

"  Augustus  was  the  greatest  of  all  his  successors."  Wrong,  because 
Augustus  was  not  one  of  his  own  successors ;  the  latter  term  does  not  in- 
clude the  former.  Correct  by  substituting  a  term  that  does  include  the 
former :  "  Augustus  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  Roman  emperors^  Or  else 
substitute  the  comparative  degree:  "Augustus  was  grcaUr  than  any  of 
bis  successors." 

614.  An  adjective  in  the  comparative  or  superlative 
must  precede  an  adjective  modified  by  more  or  rrwst^ 
relating  to  the  same  noun  ;  as,  "  a  larger  and  more  in- 
teresting volume  ". 

Jn  what  dms  ro»y  the  comparatlvo  dojrrt«o  he  unod,  own  when  an  object  is  oom- 
pnivd  with  any  number  of  other*  I  612.  How  and  when  rount  othrr  be  used  after 
the  comparative  degree  t  Show  by  eXHrnples  when  other  must  be  used,  and  when 
not  ©13.  After  th«  •ui>erktivo  decree,  what  word*  mu«t  not  be  uwd  with  th« 
Utter  term  I  Why  not  I  l!lu«trate  thia  principle.  614.  What  ia  the  proper 
order,  vbaa  a  oomparatiTs  or  luperlatlve  and  an  a^ieeiive  mudilled  by  man  or 


222  FALSE   SYNTAX. 

We  do  not  say  "  a  more  interesting  and  larger  volume,"  1.  Because  it 
would  sound  ill.  2.  Because  it  might  appear  that  more  belonged  to  the 
second  adjective  larger^  as  well  as  to  interesting. 

615.  Adjectives  must  not  be  used  for  adverbs,  nor 
adverbs  for  adjectives.     See  §  403,  404. 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Under  §  610.  Nothing' is  more  preferable  than  a  good  char- 
acter. 

[Corrected. — !N"otliing  is  preferable  to  a  good  character.  More 
must  be  omitted,  because  the  meaning  of  preferable  precludes  the 
idea  of  comparison.  Than  must  be  changed  to  to^  because  'prefer- 
able is  followed  by  to.'\ 

The  people  were  clamorous  for  a  freer  constitution. — Few  in- 
stitutions give  so  complete  a  course  and  so  perfect  an  education 
as  the  German  Universities. — Turkey  is  as  dead  as  any  country 
can  well  be. — The  raisins  of  Malaga  are  more  superior  than  those 
of  Smyrna. — The  English  regarded  Wellington  with  the  most 
entire  confidence. — Mohammedan  pilgrims  look  upon  Mecca  as 
the  most  holiest  spot  on  earth. — Did  you  not  promise  to  take 
her  for  better  or  worser  ? — The  Pacific  is  the  least  roughest  of 
all  the  oceans. — How  much  more  are  we  better  off  than  ever 
before  I 

Under  §  611.  Which  of  those  twins  is  the  largest  ? — The  elder 
of  your  three  brothers  is  the  smaller. — Is  the  present  or  the  past 
condition  of  France  the  best? — Which  is  the  most  northerly,  iN'ew 
York  or  San  Francisco  ? — Which  is  the  more  northerly,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  or  San  Francisco  ?  The  former,  I  think. — At  Pana- 
ma, the  year  is  divided  into  a  wet  and  a  dry  season  ;  the  last  is 
the  shortest. — We  have  a  department  for  boys  and  one  for  girls ; 
the  former  are  the  smartest  in  arithmetic,  but  the  latter  are  the 
best  in  composition. 

Under  §  612.  The  plague  was  more  fatal  than  any  disease 
then  known. — Mary  is  shorter  than  any  other  of  her  sisters. — 
Jeremiah  is  more  pathetic  than  any  of  the  prophets. — Day  and 


most  relate  to  the  same  noun  ?    Why  should  we  not  pay  a  more  interesting  and 
'firger  volume  1    615.  What  is  the  Ituit  rule  reiatiug  to  adjectives? 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  223 

night  are  longer  in  the  polar  regions  than  in  other  lower  latitudes. 
— Iridium  and  platinum  are  heavier  than  any  of  the  metals. 

Under  §  613.  Lake  Superior  is  the  largest  of  any  lake  in  the 
world. — Washington  was  the  last  of  his  soldiers  to  leave  the  field. 
— Mount  Mitchell  is  the  loftiest  of  any  other  elevation  of  land 
cast  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. — Adam  is  supposed  to  have  heea 
the  most  noble  looking  of  his  descendants. — The  moon  is  the 
nearest  to  ns  of  all  the  stars. 

Undsr  §  614.  There  are  few  more  fertile  or  fairer  lands  than 
Italy. — Domitian  was  one  of  the  most  tyrannical,  most  depraved, 
and  weakest,  of  the  Roman  emperors. — The  reign  of  (ieorge  III. 
was  at  the  same  time  the  most  eventful  and  longest  recorded  in 
English  history. 

Under  §  615.  Opportunities  of  gaining  distinction  do  not  now 
occur  80  frequent  as  they  did  in  old  times. — The  sun  looks  less 
brightly  than  usual  to-day. — There  are  few  that  live  as  holy  as 
they  ought. — His  finger  pains  him  very  bad. — It  makes  one  feel 
strangely  to  be  alone  in  a  foreign  land. — Water  is  frozen  easier 
than  alcohol. — James  reads  more  distinct  than  any  of  my  scholars. 


LESSON  LXXXII. 

FINITE    YSBBS. — FALSE    SYNTAX. 


RULE  XI. — Agreement  of  the  Verb. 

616.  A  verb  agrees  witli  its  subject  in  person  and 
nnmber. 

Examples. — /  dare  [Ist,  sing.,  agreeing  with  /]  not  go. — Ife  dare$ 
not  go. — If  thou  hadat  obeyed  orders,  all  would  have  been  well. — TJiou  i» 
[3d,  sing.,  agreeing  with  thou  taken  merely  as  a  word]  in  the  singular 
number. — Each  of  them  is  to  be  examinated. — There  needs  great  labor  to 
produce  a  good  crop. — There  lacked  but  one  [artide']  of  the  whole  num- 
ber.—/* ii  thou  ?— Who  art  thou  f-^Oo  \thau\  meet  [thou]  thy  brother. — 
To  die  it  [Sd^  sing.,  agreeing  with  the  infinitive  to  die]  gain.— From  what 

616.  B«dt«  Bole  XI.,  r«btinfr  to  tbo  «frr«emcnt  of  tho  Tcrb.  In  e«ch  of  tbo 
tzamplee,  gire  the  penoo  uxd  oumb«r  of  the  verb,  and  tell  with  wh*t  It  igreM. 


224      -  AGREEMENT   OF   THE   VERB. 

country  the  nectarine  was  introduced,  is  [3rd,  sing.,  agreeing  with  the 
substantive  clause  that  precedes]  uncertain. 

617.  Cautions. — Be  sure  that  the  verb  agrees  with 
the  right  word.  When  it  is  separated  from  its  subject 
bj  an  intervening  substantive,  there  is  a  tendency  to 
make  it  agree  with  the  latter. 

"  A  succession  of  excitements  are  sure  to  distract  the  mind  from  study." 
Wrong,  because  Siiccession  is  the  subject,  and  not  excitements,  which  is 
the  object  of  the  preposition  of.  The  verb  are  must  be  made  singular, — 
is.  So,  *'  Your  vessel,  together  with  twelve  others,  has  [not  fiave]  ar- 
rived." "  This  confusion  of  ideas  in  educated  minds  is  [not  are]  to  be 
deplored." 

618.  Be  sure  that  the  verb  is  in  the  right  person  and 
number,  when  its  subject  is  a  relative  pronoun;  re- 
membering that  a  relative  takes  the  person  and  num- 
ber of  its  antecedent. 

"  A  belief  in  astrology  was  one  of  the  most  wide-spread  delusions  that 
has  ever  led  men  astray."  The  subject  that  agrees  with  its  antecedent 
deltisions  in  the  third  person,  plural ;  the  verb  should  therefore  be  plural, 
— have  led.  "  I  am  the  person  that  is  [not  am]  responsible  for  the  state- 
ment." Here  person  is  the  antecedent,  not  /;  and  the  relative  is  in  the 
third,  singular. 

619.  The  title  of  a  book,  being  looked  upon  as  one  thing,  takes  a  verb 
in  the  singular,  even  though  its  leading  substantive  is  plural ;  as,  "  Hewitt's 
'  Homes  of  the  Poets '  is  [not  are]  a  delightful  volume." 

620.  A  verb  between  two  nominatives  agrees  with  the  one  that  is  the 
leading  subject  of  discourse.  This,  except  in  questions  asked  with  an  in- 
terrogative pronoun,  is  almost  always  the  one  that  precedes  it ;  as,  "  God- 
liiiess  is  great  riches." 

If  the  nominatives  are  equally  prominent  as  subjects  of  discourse,  the 
verb  may  agree  with  the  one  that  follows  it,  particularly  if  it  is  nearer  than 
the  other;  as,  "The  wages  of  sin  is  death."  Are,  agreeing  with  wac/eSy 
would  be  equally  good. 

<J17.  What  tendency  is  there,  when  the  verb  is  Bcparated  from  its  subject  by  an 
Intervening  substantive?  Illustrate  this,  and  show  the  error.  618.  What  must 
be  observed,  when  the  subject  is  a  relative  pronoun?  Illustrate  this  point 
619.  State  the  principle  relating  to  the  title  of  a  book.  620.  When  a  verb  stands 
between  two  nominatives,  with  which  does  it  agree?  If  the  nominatives  are 
equally  prominent  as  subjects  of  diacouree,  with  which  may  the  verb  agree  i 


AGREEMENT  OF  THE  YEBB.  225 

621.  CJoLLEcnvE  NoxjNS. — A  verb  agreeing  with  a 
collective  noun  is  put  in  the  plural,  unless  the  action 
or  state  is  clearly  affirmed  of  the  individuals  taken  to- 
gether as  one  body,  in  whicli  case  the  singular  is  re- 
quired. 

"  The  crowd  were  eager  to  hear  the  news."  The  verb  ia  in  the  plural, 
because  it  was  not  the  crowd  as  one  body,  but  the  individuals  in  the  crowd, 
tltat  ex{>ericnced  the  delight  *'  The  crowd  teas  composed  of  men  of  every 
clatw."  IJere  the  crowd  a^  one  whole,  is  evidently  meant,  and  the  verb 
must  be  in  the  singular. 

622.  A  collective  noun  preceded  by  /Ai»,  that^  every^  eacfk,  or  no,  gen- 
erally implies  one  whole,  and  takes  a  verb  in  the  singular ;  as,  "  Every 
mob  has  its  leader." 

623.  Few,  many,  hundred,  thousand,  kc,  almost  always  take  a  plural 
verb ;  as,  "  A  few  have  escaped  altogether ;  a  great  many  of  the  survivors 
are  seriously  injured.'^     "  A  hundred  [of]  swords  usere  drami." 

624.  A  collective  noun  in  the  plural  takes  a  plural 
verb  ;  as,  "  Large  crowds  were  harangued  every  day." 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Under  §  616.  "If  that  is  the  only  diflaculty,"  eays  I  to  myself, 
"  we  shall  soon  succeed." 

[Corrected. — "  If  that  is  the  only  diflBculty,"  »ay  I  to  myself, 
*■*•  we  shall  soon  succeed."  Says  must  be  changed  to  «ay,  to  agree 
with  its  subject  /,  in  the  first,  singular.] 

Fifty  head  of  cattle  was  sold  yesterday. — The  duke  may  talk 
as  he  choose,  but  he  dare  not  refuse  my  petition. — Was  you  at 
the  concert  last  evening? — If  he  have  brought  any  news,  he  will 
soon  let  us  know. — Each  of  the  states  are  well  represented. — He 
need  to  be  reminded  of  his  promise. — What  means  these  loud  com- 
plaints ?  Was  you  not  warned  ? — By  the  term  fossils  is  meant  the 
petrified  remains  of  animals  and  plants. — To  comply  with  the 
rules  promptly  and  cheerfully  are  required  of  all. 

Next,  tliiuks  I,  he  will  insult  the  prince  himself. — Suspend 

ezi.  Olre  the  mle  for  a  verb  agrMing  wiUi  •  ooll«ctive  noan.    Give  examples 
022.  What  worda  befopD  aoollcctivo  noun  ifcnerally  dhow  that  it  requirfit  a  vprh 
Id  tbpftn(n><art    023.  What  collrctlv-e  nonna  almoet  always  take  a  plural  vurbl 
821  What  it  aald  of  a  collective  noun  to  the  plural t 
10* 


226  FALSE   SYNTAX. 

your  opinion  till  the  tme  state  of  the  case  have  appeared.  -There 
are  plenty  of  oats  in  Illinois. — My  scissors  was  broken  yester- 
day.— Every  one  of  your  arguments  are  absurd. — What  did  you 
say  have  become  of  your  three  cousins  ? — Five  are  an  odd  num- 
ber.— The  animalcula  in  water  is  clearly  seen  with  the  microscope. 
— That  you  should  deceive  yourself  so  grossly  and  so  fatally  are 
almost  incredible. 

Under  §  617.  The  number  of  immigrants  from  Ireland  have 
greatly  decreased. — The  train  due  last  evening,  with  several  others, 
were  detained  till  the  track  could  be  cleared. — The  fragrance  of 
honeysuckles  and  roses  fill  the  air. — Are  not  twelve  months'  travel 
in  Europe  enough  to  tire  any  one  ? — The  absurdity  of  many  of 
Mohammed's  doctrines  are  self-evident. 

Undek  §  618.  Set  forth  such  arguments  as  seems  to  you  the 
most  conclusive. — Thou  mighty  spirit  of  the  past  that  looks  upon 
me  with  thy  melancholy  eyes! — Spencer  is  confessedly  one  of  the 
ablest  men  that  has  written  on  education. — It  is  I  that  is  wrong. 
— The  memoranda  that  is  lost,  would  throw  light  on  the  subject. 
— She  is  one  of  those  cheerful  women  that  always  wears  a  smile. 
— Who  that  have  any  regard  for  what  is  becoming,  could  dress 
her  hair  in  this  way  ? 

Undee  §  619,  620.  Herschel's  "Outlines  of  Astronomy"  are 
worthy  of  a  place  in  every  student's  library. — The  chief  wealth  of 
the  Laplanders  are  [consists  of]  reindeer. — I  have  just  finished 
Kennedy's  "  Memoirs  of  Wirt ",  which  are  certainly  extremely 
interesting. — Five  wild  turkeys  was  the  reward  of  my  labors. 

Under  §  621.  A  herd  of  a  thousand  cattle  [is  or  aref]  no  un- 
common sight. — A  whole  tribe  [was  or  were  ?]  sometimes  nearly 
destroyed  in  war. — A  large  flock  of  crows  [has  or  Tiave  ?]  alighted 
in  the  corn-field. — The  jury  [is  or  are  ?]  certainly  an  intelligent 
set  of  men. — The  family  you  relieved  still  [remembers  or  remem- 
ber ?]  y«ur  kindness. — The  committee  [was  or  were  f]  indefatigable 
in  their  efforts  to  arrive  at  the  truth. 

Under  §  622,  623,  624.  Each  flock  that  alight,  destroy  bushels 
of  grain. — Every  family  you  relieved  still  remember  your  kind- 
ness.— A  few  inches  more  or  less  in  a  lady's  height  makes  some 
difference. — A  hundred  oysters  does  not  occupy  much  room. — 
What  avails  even  the  mightiest  armies,  if  they  are  led  by  in- 
competent commanders  ? 


TWO  Olt   MOKE   SINGULAR   SUBJECTS,  227 

LESSON  LXXXIII. 

FINITE   VERBS   (CONTINUE  D). —FA  L8E   SYNTAX. 

625.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  or  substantive 
clauses,  taken  together,  require  a  plural  verb ;  taken 
separately,  they  require  a  verb  in  the  singular. 

ExAMPLKS.  Taken  together. — James  and  John  are  here. — That  you 
have  done  your  duty,  that  you  have  saved  me  from  great  loss,  are  facta 
tliat  I  can  not  deny. — In  the  former  of  these  examples,  are  must  be  parsed 
as  in  the  third,  plural, — agreeing  with  its  subject  James  and  John^  two 
singular  substantives  taken  together : — Rule,  A  verb  agrees  with  its  sub- 
ject in  person  and  number. 

Taken  separately. — James  or  John  is  here. — That  you  have  done  your 
duty  or  saved  me  from  great  loss,  is  untrue. — In  the  former  of  these  ex- 
amples, is  must  be  parsed  as  in  the  third,  singular,  agreeing  with  its  sub- 
ject ,/amM  or  John,  two  singular  substantives  taken  separately: — Ride, 
A  verb  agrees,  Ac. 

626.  Subjects  are  said  to  be  taken  together,  when 
they  are  connected  by  and  expressed  or  understood. 
"  Industry,  energy,  and  honesty,  are  [plu.]  essential  to 
success."  Or  without  and^  "  Industry,  energy,  honesty, 
are  [plu.]  essential  to  success." 

One  of  the  substantives  thus  taken  together  may  be  understood ;  as, 
*'  Irving's  and  Macaulay^s  style  are  very  different," — that  is,  Irving's  style 
and  Macaulay's  style. 

627.  The  title  of  a  book,  being  looked  upon  as  one  thing,  takes  a  verb 
in  the  singular,  even  though  it  consists  of  two  substantives  connected  by 
aud ;  as,  "  Moore's  *  Paradise  and  the  Peri  '  is  justly  admired.^ 

638.  When  two  singular  8ul>stantives  connected  by  and  denote  the 
same  individual,  the  verb  agrees  with  them  in  the  singular;  as,  ^*The 
draper  and  tailor  on  the  comer  i*  about  to  remove." 

826.  Whnt  In  the  rtilp  relating:  to  two  or  more  Blnsrtilar  unhjectii  or  subntantive 
eIaa«o«t  In  tho  itentence  Jamea  and  John  are  A^rc,  name  the  «in(ru)ar  suhjectA. 
How  ar«  they  taken  t  Parse  art.  In  the  sentenoe  Jamea  or  John  is  here,  name  the 
■inirular  aubjectc  How  are  they  taken  t  Parse  m.  0S6.  When  are  subjects  said 
to  he  taken  tovfetherf  What  is  said  of  one  of  the  subjocta  thus  taken  together! 
827.  What  exception  is  mentioned,  relating  to  the  title  of  a  book  t  828.  In  what 
«h«r  easo  dots  a  rerb  agree  In  the  liogujar  with  two  singular  substantives  ooo' 


228  SUBJECTS   TAKEN   SEPARATELY. 

629.  Subjects  are  said  to  be  taken  separately, 

1.  When  tbej  are  connected  by  or^  nor^  and  also^ 
and  too^  and  not^  hut,  if  not,  as  well  as, 

"  Benton,  and  General  Jackson  also,  was  [sing.]  a  native  of  North 
Carolina."  *'  Wellington,  but  not  Nelson,  was  born  [sing.]  in  Ireland." — 
In  these  examples,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  former  substantive  and  is  un- 
deretood  with  the  other. 

2.  "When  they  are  severally  preceded  by  each,  every ^ 
no,  or  not.  "  Every  tempest  and  every  dew-drop  lias 
[sing,]  its  mission  to  perform." 

3.  When  the  first  is  separated  from  the  rest  by  the 
verb,  which  in  that  case  agrees  with  the  first  and  is 
understood  with  the  rest.  "  His  ^i'xi'pleases  [sing.]  me, 
his  frankness,  and  hie-  courtesy." 

4.  When  the  subject  is  repeated  with  and  only  or 
equivalent  words,  or  a  stronger  term  is  substituted  for 
the  one  first  used. 

"  Religion,  and  religion  only,  is  [sing.]  an  anchor  that  we  can  trust." 
"  Dislike,  nay  hatred,  was  written  [sing.]  on  his  countenance." 

630.  When  subjects  taken  together  are  of  different  persons,  the  plural 
verb  is  to  be  parsed  as  in  the  first  person  rather  than  the  second,  and  the 
second  rather  than  the  third.  Observe,  also,  that  modesty  requires  a 
speaker  or  writer  to  mention  himself  last.  "She,  thou,  and  I  [that  is, 
toe]  are  [first  person]  well."  *'  She  and  thou  [that  is,  you]  are  [second 
person]  well." 

631.  When  subjects  taken  separately  are  of  different  persons,  the 
verb  should  be  repeated  with  each,  if  a  different  form  is  required.  "  Either 
you  are  in  the  wrong,  or  I  aw."     "  She  is  very  tired,  and  so  am  I." 

632.  When  subjects  connected  by  or  or  nor  are  in  different  numbers, 
the  verb  should  be  put  in  the  plural,  and  the  plural  subject  or  subjects 
should  stand  nearest  to  it ;  as,  "  Neither  rank  nor  riches  inake  me  think 
highly  of  a  man." 

nected  by  and?  629.  In  ■what  four  cases  are  subjects  said  to  be  taken  sepamtely  f 
When  the  connection  is  made  with  and  also,  dec.,  with  which  substantive  does  the 
verb  agree?  630.  When  subjects  taken  together  are  of  different  persona,  how  is 
the  verb  to  be  parsed  ?  How  should  /  be  placed  ?  631.  When  should  the  verb  be 
repeated  with  subjects  taken  separately  ?  632.  What  rule  is  laid  down  reBpcctlng 
BUbjectB  connected  by  or  or  nor,  when  they  are  in  different  numbers  I 


AOBEEMENT   OF   THE   VERB.  229 

FXL6E     SYNTAX. 

Undkb  §  625.  Neither  olive  oil  nor  alcohol  are  bo  heavy  as 
distilled  water,  bat  milk  and  sea  water  is  heavier. 

[Corrected.— 'S cither  oWve  oil  nor  alcohol  is  so  heavy  as  dis- 
tilled water,  bat  milk  and  sea  water  are  heavier.  Are  must  be 
changed  to  i«,  to  agree  in  the  singular  with  oil  and  alcohol  taken 
separately.  Is  must  be  changed  to  are^  to  agree  in  the  plural  with 
milk  and  xoater  taken  together.] 

What  signifies  rank  and  wealth,  if  we  have  not  the  health  to 
enjoy  them  ? — Neither  honor,  justice,  nor  truth,  permit  you  now 
to  draw  back. — Your  friendly  warning  and  my  stern  rebuke  [was 
or  weref]  alike  unlieeded. — To  sympathize  with  the  sorrowing 
and  relieve  the  distressed  [is  or  are  f]  required  of  every  Chris- 
tian.— "Wonderfully  [has  or  ?iavef]  art  and  science  progressed 
during  the  present  century. — Lithography,  or  the  art  of  obtain- 
ing impressions  from  stone,  [is  or  aref\  a  modern  invention. — 
That  ho  would  betray  his  trust  or  try  to  deceive  [is  or  are  ?] 
not  probable. 

UxDER  §  626.  Serf  artisan,  noble,  prince,  was  among  Peter  the 
Hermit's  auditors. — What  care  we  for  the  indiflferenoe,  the  in- 
gratitude, the  scorn  of  the  world,  which  has  been  the  reward  of 
the  good  in  every  age  ? — The  torrid  and  the  frigid  zone  represents 
the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. — Reaumur's  and  Fahrenheit's  scale 
is  quite  different. 

Under  §  627,  628.  "  Paul  and  Virginia  "  are  a  delightful  story. 
— Simms  has  just  completed  ''The  Sword  and  the  Distaff",  which, 
I  am  told,  are  among  the  best  of  his  productions. — Your  friend  and 
cousin,  as  yon  always  call  him,  have  returned. — Our  minister 
plenipotentiary  and  envoy  extraordinary,  with  all  his  suite,  are  at 
the  National  Hotel. 

Under  §  629.  Not  only  Albany,  but  New  York  also,  were 
founded  by  the  Dutch. — Peru,  and  not  Mexico,  were  conquered 
by  Pizarro. — Cuba,  as  well  as  Haiti,  were  discovered  by  Colum- 
bus.— Each  village  and  each  hamlet  have  their  petty  chief. — Not 
friendship,  not  success,  not  wealth,  make  a  man  truly  happy. — In 
Mexico  the  cactus  bloom  in  great  profusion,  the  magnolia,  and 
tlie  oleander. — Energy,  and  nothing  but  energy,  are  capable  of 
mcceeding  in  a  new  country. — Folly,  even  crime,  too  often  meet 
with  no  rebake  in  fashionable  society. 


230  CONSTRUCTION   OF   VERBS. 

Under  §  631,  632.  l^^either  my  grandfather  nor  myself  are  able 
to  put  up  with  this  any  longer. — Either  thou  or  thy  brother  hath 
informed  me  wrong. — Not  only  I,  but  thou  also,  art  to  blame. — 
Neither  the  tongs  nor  the  poker  was  in  its  place. — Either  Victoria 
and  her  cabinet  or  Louis  Napoleon  has  made  a  great  mistake. 


LESSON  LXXXI. 

FINITE    VERBS  (CONTINUED).  — FALSE    SYNTAX. 

633.  Errors  of  various  kinds,  besides  those  already 
noticed,  are  common  in  the  use  of  verbs.  They  consist 
chiefly  in  the  substitution  of  one  mood  or  tense  for  an- 
other, the  use  of  corrupt  forms,  and  a  want  of  consist- 
ency when  two  or  more  verbs  stand  in  the  same  con- 
struction. 

634.  Do  not  use  the  indicative  for  the  subjunctive 
mood. 

635.  Use  the  present  subjunctive,  not  indicative,  in  a  command,  pro- 
hibition, or  warning,  after  a  conjunction  following  an  imperative  or  such 
phrases  as  it  is  necessary.     "  Have  a  care  lest  thou  fall  [not  fallest].'" 

636.  Use  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  not  indicative,  to  express  a  wish  or 
supposition,  when  the  opposite  of  what  is  wished  or  supposed  is  really  the 
case ;  as,  *'  Would  Heaven  he  were  [not  teas']  here ! " 

637.  Use  the  present  indicative  to  express  what  is 
always  true,  even  though  the  leading  verb  is  past ;  as, 
"  Many  of  the  ancients  believed  that  the  soul  is  [not 
was]  immortal." 

638.  Tlie  perfect  indicative  must  be  used  when  past^ 


633  In  what  do  the  remaining  errors  in  tho  use  of  verbs  chiefl}' consist  I 
834,  What  caution  is  given  relating  to  the  subjunctive  mood !  636.  In  what  must 
the  present  subjunctive,  and  not  the  present  indicative,  be  used  ?  636.  What  must 
be  expressed  with  the  Imperfect  subjunctive,  and  not  the  imperfect  Indicative? 
637.  What  must  the  present  Indicative  be  used  to  express  ?  638.  When  must  the 
perfect  indicative  be  used?    With  what  muBt  it  not  be  used?    Illustrate  theee 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   VERBS  231 

time  connected  with  the  present  is  denoted,  but  must 
not  stand  with  words  denoting  past  time  simply. 

'*  They  arc  travelling  for  the  last  three  months."  Here  past  time  ter- 
minating at  the  present  is  denoted,  and  the  present  tense  must  therefore 
be  changed  to  the  perfect:  "They  have  been  travelling  for  the  last  three 
Taoutlis."  *'A  great  storm  has  set  in  yesterday,"  Uere  past  time  not 
-^nnected  with  the  present  is  denoted,  and  the  perfect  tense  must  be 
changed  to  the  imperfect :  "  A  great  storm  set  in  yesterday." 

639.  The  imperfect  potential  is  often  used  in  wrong 
coimections. 

"  Remember  that  you  might  fail  in  your  attempt  [say  may  fail\'^  ''I 
will  not  speak  of  it,  even  if  I  shoMld  be  asked  [say  if  I  am  asked,  or  be 
asked]."  "  I  would  not  speak  of  it,  even  if  I  sheUl  be  asked  [say  if  /should 
be  asked  or  were  asked]." 

In  like  manner  we  say,  "  I  icill  go,  if  I  can  ; "  but,  "  I  icould  go,  if  I 
eould."  *'  I  may  go,  if  you  vill  remain  ; "  but,  "  I  might  go,  if  you  would 
remain."  "  I  am  making,  have  made,  or  will  make,  my  arrangements  to 
remain,  that  you  may  go."  *'  I  made  or  had  made  my  arrangements  to 
remain,  that  you  might  go." 

C40.  Be  careful  not  to  nse  the  imperfect  indicative 
of  an  irregular  verb  for  the  perfect  participle,  or  the 
perfect  participle  for  the  imperfect  indicative. 

Do  not  say  has  went  for  has  gone,  having  wrote  for  har-ing  ipritien,  1 
geen  for  I  saw,  &c.  Numerous  errors  of  this  kind  were  presented  for  cor- 
rection under  the  in  egular  verbs. 

C41.  Avoid  corrupt  forms. 

Among  the  most  common  of  these  are  had  have,  for  had,  in  the  plu- 
perfect ;  hadnU  ought,  for  ought  not ;  had  as  lief,  had  rather,  Ac,  for 
would  as  lief,  itonld  rather,  &e. ;  Fm  a  mind,  for  /  have  a  mind;  am% 
for  are  not ;  moughtiCt,  for  might  not,  &.C. 

642.  In  combining  two  or  more  auxiliaries  with  a 

point*.  639.  What  ten«c  1«  often  ti«cd  in  wrong  connoctlorB  ?  Give  oiamriw  of 
thU  error.  l»  ran  or  could  used  tn  a  dependent  clause,  with  tr<7/7  Withir<m/(/7 
la  wilt  or  wtndd  u»od  in  a  dependent  clause,  with  may  7  With  might  7  (MO.  Wliat 
two  part*  of  irrefrular  verb«  mniit  not  be  uaed  for  ench  other  f  Give  exnmples  of 
the  violation  of  thia  rule.  641.  Mention  aome  of  the  corrtipt  forma  moat  com- 
monly oaed,  and  tell  what  moat  be  aabatltatcd  for  each.    642.  lu  oomblning  two 


232  coNSTKUcnoN  of  yeebs. 

participle  or  the  root  of  a  verb,  be  sure  tliat  they  are 
all  such  as  can  properly  be  used  with  it. 

"  I  will  give  as  much  as  he  has."  As  he  has  what  ?  Evidently  has 
give.  Correct  by  introducing  the  participle  with  the  latter  auxiliary  :  "  I 
will  give  as  much  as  he  has  given^  "  Does  he  not  economize,  and  even 
pinches  himself,  that  his  family  may  live  comfortably  ? "  Pinches  must 
not  be  used  with  the  auxiliary  does^  Say,  "  Does  he  not  economize,  and 
even  pinch  himself,"  &c 

FALSE     SYNTAX, 

TJndee  §  635,  636.  See  that  thou  forgettest  not  thy  friends. 

[Corrected. — See  that  thou  forget  not  thy  friends.  Forgettest 
must  be  changed  to  forget,  the  present  subjunctive,  because  it  ex- 
presses an  act  forbidden,  after  the  conjunction  that,  following  the 
imperative  see.] 

It  is  proper  that  he  makes  an  apology. — Use  all  your  efforts, 
lest  she  surpasses  you. — Oh  that  the  storm  was  over,  and  the 
blessed  sun  was  shining ! — K  I  was  a  farmer,  I  should  give  my 
attention  principally  to  fruit. — Would  that  he  was  as  devout  as 
formerly ! — She  could  not  be  more  queenly,  if  she  was  a  queen. — 
I  wish  there  was  more  honesty  in  the  world. 

Under  §  63T.  The  experiments  made  on  this  occasion  proved 
that  water  was  impenetrable. — Copernicus  was  the  first  in  mod- 
ern times  to  teach  that  the  earth  moved  round  the  sun. — Were 
you  aware  that  comets  sometimes  moved  more  than  a  million  of 
miles  in  an  hour? — Columbus  had  become  convinced  that  the 
earth  was  round. 

Under  §  638.  Philosophers,  in  old  times,  have  taught  some 
strange  doctrines. — ^Living  with  her  several  years,  I  think  I  know 
her  character. — Newark  is  long  celebrated  for  the  manufacture 
of  carriages. — Seven  metals  have  been  known  even  in  early  times. 
— A  law  has  long  since  been  passed,  forbidding  merchants  to  en- 
cumber the  sidewalk, 

Undee  §  639.  Railroads  are  not  built,  simply  that  a  dozen 
directors  might  enrich  themselves. — I  should  speak  my  mind 
more  freely,  if  you  will  promise  not  to  repeat  what  I  say. — We 

or  more  auxiliariea  with  a  participle  or  verbal  root,  what  must  be  seen  to  ?    Illus- 
trate thia. 


FALSE   BYNTAX.  233 

shall  ultimately  find  that  there  is  some  wise  purpose  in  every 
affliction,  though  we  could  not  discover  what  it  was. — Could 
you  not  prepare  your  lessons  better,  if  you  try  ? — Men  will  not 
listen  to  the  warnings  of  the  pulpit,  that  they  might  profit  by 
them. 

U.vDEB  §  641.  Had  ITume  have  looked  into  the  matter  more 
closely,  he  would  not  have  made  this  misstatement, — Knowing 
the  necessity  of  energy  and  perseverance,  they  hadn't  ouglit  to 
fold  their  arms  at  this  crisis. — I  had  as  lief  remmn,  but  I  an't  going 
to  do  so. — They  said  the  stage  moughtn't  leave  to-morrow,  but 
Tm  a  mind  to  risk  it. 

Under  §  642.  lie  would  sit  and  read  for  hours,  and  then  medi- 
tated much  on  what  he  read.— No  poetry  more  sublime  than  Mil- 
ton's ever  has  or  is  likely  to  be  written. — Ilave  you  ever,  or  can 
you  imagine,  how  you  would  feel,  if  you  were  cast  upon  a  desert 
island? — They  could  neither  realize  their  misfortune  nor  pro- 
vided any  remedy  for  its  consequences. 


LESSON  LXXXY. 

THE    INFINITIVE. -FALSE    SYNTAX. 


RULE  Xn.— iNFiNmYES. 

643.  A  verb  in  the  infinitive  is  used  as  a  snbject,  or 
limits  the  meaning  of  some  other  word,  or  stands  inde- 
pendently in  the  sentence. 

Exam  PLCS. — To  deceive  [subject]  is  always  wrong. — He  chastens,  [in 
order]  to  tavt  [limits  the  mcaniDg  of  the  noun  order  understood]. — Ney 
offered  battle  rather  than  retreat. — There  are  animalcula  so  small  aa  to  be 
invisible, — Miller  declared  that  the  world  was  about  to  be  destroyed. — Let 
irtrife  ceaxe. — Bid  the  repentant  rome. — A  house  to  let  [intrana]. — To  mur 
niur  or  endure  [uacd  independently] — which  is  the  wiser  course  ? — To  tpeak 
plainly,  honesty  is  at  a  discount. 

043.  Rocltc  Rul«  XII.,  relating  to  Inflnltlren.  Otve  an  example  of  th«  um  of 
tbm  iufloitlTo  M  m  tubjoot ;  of  tt«  uae  m  «  modifier  of  other  words ;  of  ita  inde 


234:  CONSTRUCTION   OF  THE   INFINITIVE. 

644.  The  preposition  far  must  not  be  used  immedi- 
ately before  the  infinitive  ;  as,  "  He  is  trying  hard  fof 
to  enter  college."  Correct  by  omitting  the  preposi- 
tion. 

645.  The  sign  to  must  not  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  infinitive  by  an  adverb  ;  as,  "  Tb  faithfully 
represent  this  scene  would  be  impossible."  ^sij  faith* 
fully  to  represent  this  scene,  or  to  represent  this  scene 
faithfully. 

646.  The  sign  to  must  not  be  used  for  the  full  infini- 
tive, unless  the  root  of  the  verb  can  be  supplied  from 
the  preceding  part  of  the  sentence. 

"  You  might  turn  your  talents  to  some  account ;  you  ought  fo."  In 
dignified  composition,  you  ought  to  do  so  would  be  preferred ;  but  the  sen- 
tence is  grammatical  as  it  stands,  because  we  can  supply  turn  from  the 
fii-st  member  and  thus  correctly  complete  the  infinitive.  "You  never 
turned  your  talents  to  accoimt ;  but  you  ought  <o."  Wrong,  because,  in 
completing  the  infinitive  from  the  first  member,  we  should  have  to  say  to 
turned.     Change  to  you  ought  to  have  done  so. 

647.  The  infinitive  is  used  without  its  sign  to  after 
the  following  verbs  : — 

1.  Bid  (meaning  order\  in  the  active  voice ;  as,  "  He  bids  us  come." 
But,  "  He  bids  fair  [that  is,  is  likely^  to  succeed."  "  He  was  bidden  [pas- 
sive] to  prepare." 

2.  Dare  (meaning  venture)^  when  not  in  the  infinitive,  participles,  oi- 
compound  tenses  ;  as,  "I  dare  not  speak."  Yet  to  is  sometimes  used  ;  as, 
"  Nobody  dares  to  touch  him." — To  must  always  be  used  in  infinitives 
after  dare  meaning  challenge,  and  after  the  infinitives,  participles,  and 
compound  tenses  of  dare  meaning  venture;  as,  "They  will  not  dare  to 
draw  back." 

pendent  use.  644.  What  preposition  must  not  be  used  immediately  before  the  In. 
finitive?  645.  What  Ib  the  rule  relating  to  the  separation  of  the  sign  tot, 
646.  WTien  only  may  the  sign  to  be  used  for  the  full  infinitive?  Give  examples  of 
its  proper  and  improper  use  for  the  full  Infinitive.  647.  When  must  the  infinitive 
be  used  without  its  sign,  and  when  not,  after  bid  ?  After  dare  7  After  feel  7  After 
hear  7  After  make  7  Does  to  ever  appear  in  the  infinitive  after  make  7  When  does 
see  require  the  omission  of  to,  and  when  not  f  What  verb  in  both  voices  requires 
th«  omission  of  to  1  After  what  other  verbs  is  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  occasioually 


OMISSION   OF  TIIE   SIGN.  235 

8.  Fkkl,  when  transitive  and  used  literally  ;  aa,  *'  Did  you  feel  the  ImUI 
enter  ?  "  But,  when  feel  is  in  the  passive  voice,  or  is  used  figuratively  of 
the  mind,  to  must  be  introduced ;  as,  "  The  ball  was  felt  to  enter."  "  I 
feel  it  to  be  right." 

4.  Hear,  in  the  active  voice;  as,  "Just  hear  it  thunder." 
B.  Make,  in  the  active  voice ;  as,  '*  lie  made  them  leave  the  room." 
But  to  is  sometimes  used  ;  as,  "  Make  us  to  love  thee." 

6.  Skk,  when  transitive,  in  the  active  voice  ;  as,  "  See  it  rain."  When 
ue  is  intransitive,  to  must  be  introduced ;  as,  '^  Can  you  see  to  thread  this 
needle  ?  " 

7.  Let,  in  both  voices ;  as,  *'  Let  them  go."     "  They  were  let  go." 

8.  Occasionally,  also,  after  find^  have,  help,  know,  behold,  observe, 
watch,  and  in  familiar  style  please ;  as,  "  Help  us  pray  [or  to  prayy 
*'  Please  receipt  the  bill." 

648.  After  other  verbs  than  those  just  named,  the  sign  to  must  not  be 
omitted. 

649.  If  two  infinitives  or  more  are  used  in  the  same 
construction,  the  sign  to  generally  appears  in  the  first 
only,  unless  they  are  separated  by  a  number  of  inter- 
vening words ;  as,  "  Let  us  try  to  do  good  and  avoid 
evil." 

650.  Use  the  present  infinitive  to  express  an  action 
or  state  not  completed  at  the  time  denoted  by  the  lead- 
ing verb ;  the  perfect,  to  express  an  action  or  state 
completed. 

"  He  expected  to  return  to-day  [not  to  have  reiumed]^  "  Napoleon 
bad  hoped  to  occupy  Dresden  [not  to  have  occupied].^  "  The  Norwegians 
*re  thought  to  Itave  erotsed  the  Atlantic  before  Columbus." 

FALSE     SYNTAX. 

Under  §  644.  Never  do  alms  for  to  be  seen  of  men. — "We  all 
love  for  to  see  justice  and  virtue  triumph. — Always  strive  for  to 
gain  the  approbation  of  your  own  conscience ;  for  to  have  this  is 
better  than  great  riches. 

omitted  f  648.  What  It  aaid  of  the  sign  to  after  other  Terb«  than  thotte  Just  n«nied  t 
M9.  What  U  Mid  respecting  the  us4<  of  ttiis  slfpi,  wlien  two  infiiiitivo*  or  more  are 
joined  In  the  aame  eooatruotion  t  050.  What  must  the  present  inflnitive  be  wed 
for  expressing  t    WhAt,  the  perfect  InflniUve  I 


236  FALSE   SYNTAX. 

IJndee  §  645,  646.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  good  man  to  sternly 
rebuke  immorality,  not  only  by  precept,  but  also  by  his  example. 
— Tlie  grammarian  is  not  to  arbitrarily  create  rules,  but  to 
patiently  deduce  them  from  the  writings  of  standard  authors. — 
I  seem  to  distinctly  behold  the  whole  scene. — Jackson  vetoed 
the  United  States  Bank,  as  he  had  always  intended  to. — The 
Pacific  Railroad  has  not  been  built,  but  it  is  likely  to  before 
long. 

Under  §  647.  The  captain  bid  us  to  leave  the  wreck,  since  he 
dared  not  to  stay  any  longer. — I  feel  the  pain  to  dart  from  one  finger 
to  another,  and  can  almost  see  my  arm  to  swell. — A  few  words 
were  let  to  slip,  that  made  me  to  apprehend  some  difficulty. — ' 
Do  you  feel  it  be  right  to  leave,  when  you  were  bidden  remain  ? 
— "WTien  we  have  dared  speak  the  truth,  we  feel  that  we 
have  done  right. — You  were  heard  say  that  you  would  dare  any 
one  to  mount  your  horse. — In  this  disease,  pains  are  felt  shoot 
through  all  parts  of  the  body. — You  can  hear  with  great  dis- 
tinctness the  volcano  to  rumble,  as  if  cannon  were  booming  in 
the  distance. 

Undeb  §  648.  Do  I  understand  you  say  that  you  will  not 
allow  us  remain  ? — This  movement  on  Dorchester  Heights  caused 
the  enemy  evacuate  Boston.  —  An  idle  pupil  needs  be  re- 
minded of  the  value  of  time. — Have  I  not  forbidden  you  talk  in 
school  ? 

Undke  §  650.  Before  this  time  to-morrow,  we  ought  certainly 
to  have  received  news. — A  keen  speculator  would  not  have  let 
such  a  chance  have  passed  by  unimproved. — Did  you  expect  to 
have  accomplished  what  no  one  has  ever  done  before  ? — ^You 
profess  to  have  been  disappointed  in  me ;  I  am  sorry  to  fall  short 
of  your  expectations. 

Miscellaneous. — Murat  ordered  his  cavalry  to  immediately 
charge  at  full  gallop. — Many  a  martyr  has  died  rather  than  to 
,deny  his  faith.— You  need  to  do  nothing  more  than  to  call  his 
'attention  to  the  fact. — I  shall  try  to  have  seen  you  before  to- 
morrow.— How  can  I  cause  my  ideas  fiow  more  rapidly  ? — Some 
credulous  minds  can  be  made  believe  anything. — What  went  ye 
out  for  to  see? — You  should  not  have  told  her  to  have  re- 
turned 80  soon. — I  wish  you  to  thoroughly  understand  the  sub- 
ject. 


OONSTEUCmON   OF   PABTICU>LE8.  237 

LESSON   LXXXYI. 

PARTICIPLES. -FALSE    SYNTAX 


RULE  Xin.— Participles. 

651.  Participles  are  used  independently,  or  relate 
to  the  substantives  whoso  meaning  they  qualify  or 
limit. 

Examples.  Used  independently. — There  \a  no  way  of  becoming  a  thor- 
ough scholar  without  patient  study. — Judging  from  appearances,  the  west 
will  soon  be  settled. — It  is  dangerous  standing  so  near  the  edge  of  the 
precipice. — What  is  worth  doiyig  at  all  is  worth  doing  well. 

Relating  to  substantives. — TJiey  continued  praying. — /  intend  starting 
immediately. — Cease  [yott\  tormenting  me. — Rewarded  with  the  lucrative 
office  of  master  of  the  mint,  Newton  enjoyed  an  honorable  and  well-de- 
served competence. 

652.  A  participle  often  stands  independently  in  a  substantive  clause 
used  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb ;  as,  "  His  being  here  is  no  secret" 

653.  PosmoN. — ^A  participle  generally  follows  its 
substantive.  But,  if  the  substantive  is  the  subject  of 
a  verb,  it  is  sometimes  better  to  place  it  after  the  par- 
ticipial clause.     See  the  last  example  in  §  651. 

It  always  sounds  ill  to  introduce  a  participial  clause  between  a  pronoun 
and  the  verb  that  agrees  with  it ;  as,  "I,  worn  out  with  fatigue,  seized 
a  few  moments  for  repose."  Correct  by  placing  the  participial  clause 
before  the  subetantive  :  "  Worn  out  with  fatigue,  I  seized  a  few  moments 
for  repose." 

654.  Wlien  a  participle  is  not  used  independently, 
see  that  it  is  joined  to  the  word  to  which  it  really 
relates. 

"  By  neglecting  to  punish  the  vicious,  vice  is  encouraged."    Wrong, 

•61.  Recite  Rule  XIII.,  relaflnjr  to  participlea.  Give  examplea  of  participles 
uaed  Independently.  Qlve  examples  of  participles  relating  to  substantives. 
663.  Where  does  a  participle  often  stand  Independently  t  653.  Dow  does  a  partici- 
ple stand,  as  regards  lu  substaotlvat  Where  does  It  sound  111  to  introdaee  a  par- 
ticipial olanae  f    How  is  such  an  arrangement  to  be  corrMted  t    AM.  >Vben  a  par^ 


238  CONSTEUCTION   OF  PARTICIPLES. 

because  neglecting  is  here  joined  to  vice^  as  if  vice  neglected  to  punish  the 
vicious.  Correct  by  introducing  the  substantive  to  which  neglecting  really 
relates  :  "  By  neglecting  to  punish  the  vicious,  we  encourage  vice." 

655.  The  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  governs  the 
objective.  The  preposition  of,  therefore,  should  not  be 
introduced  between  such  a  participle  and  its  object ; 
as,  "  bj  erecting  of  statues,"  "  for  controlling  of  elec- 
tions ".     Correct   by  omitting  of 

656.  "When  the,  an  or  «,  this,  or  that,  is  introduced 
before  a  participle,  the  latter  becomes  a  noun  and  loses 
its  participial  construction. 

In  such  cases,  the  construction  of  a  noun  is  assumed  throughout.  An 
adjective,  but  not  an  adverb,  may  be  used  as  a  modifier ;  and  of  must  be 
introduced  if  an  object  follows :  as,  "  by  this  erecting  of  statues,"  "  for 
the  more  effectual  [not  effectually']  controlling  of  elections ". — Observe, 
however,  that  the  common  kindred  noun,  when  there  is  one,  is  often  to 
be  preferred ;  as,  "  by  this  erection  of  statues,"  "  for  the  more  effectual 
control  of  elections  ". 

FALSE     SYNTAX. 

TJndeb  §  653.    He,  feeling  his  deficiencies,  returned  to  school. 

[Corrected. — Feeling  his  deficiencies,  he  returned  to  school. 
The  participial  clause  must  not  separate  the  pronoun  lie  from  the 
verb  returned,  which  agrees  with  it.] 

On  receipt  of  this  news,  he,  thinking  that  he  now  had  an  op- 
portunity of  advancing  his  fortunes,  sailed  for  Europe. — You,  after 
making  all  these  sacrifices,  will  find  that  you  have  gained  nothing. 
— Why  should  I  attempt  to  comfort  her?  for  she,  fearing  the 
worst,  has  closed  her  ears  to  all  words  of  comfort. 

Under  §  654.  Resting  on  the  brow  of  the  hill,  the  spires  of 
the  far-distant  city  met  our  view. — Accompanied  as  they  are  with 
such  incessant  toil,  who  would  care  for  the  honors  of  office  ? — 
Groaning  and  reeling  under  its  load,  we  saw  the  stage-coach 

ticiplo  is  not  used  independently,  to  what  must  we  see  that  U  is  joined  ?  655.  What 
case  does  the  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  govern?  What  follows  with  respect 
to  the  preposition  ofl  666.  When  does  a  participle  become  a  noun  t  In  such  cases, 
what  construction  is  assumed  ?  What  is  meant  by  its  assuming  the  conBtructioo 
of  a  noun  I    What  is  often  to  be  preferred  to  thia  participial  noun  f 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  239 

slowly  ascending  the  hill. — While  pondering  which  coarse  1 
should  pursue,  my  horse  pricked  up  his  ears  and  set  out  briskly 
on  the  right-hand  road,  dripping  with  sweat  and  covered  with 
mud. 

Undkb  §  655.  There  is  no  charity  in  giving  of  money  to  the 
iateniperate. — By  helping  of  others,  we  often  help  ourselves. — A 
public  library  was  founded  for  promoting  of  the  general  intelli- 
gence.— True  happiness  generally  results  from  doing  of  one's  duty. 

Under  §  656.  There  is  no  charity  in  the  giving  money  to  the  in- 
temperate.— True  liappiness  generally  results  from  the  doing  one's 
duty.— This  mere  reading  books  can  not  educate  a  man  truly. — 
The  following  an  upright  course  is  a  requirement  of  policy  as  well 
as  duty. — That  neglecting  the  divine  law  which  so  often  proved 
fatal  to  the  ancient  Israelites,  will  be  found  quite  as  fatal  in  our 
own  case. 


LESSON  LXXXYIL 

PABTIOIPLES  (CONTINUED). -FALSE   SYNTAX. 


RULE  XrV. — Possessive  before  a  Participle. 

657.  A  substantive  which,  in  stead  of  being  modi- 
fied by  a  participle,  is  made  to  modify  the  latter,  is  put 
in  the  possessive  case. 

Examples. — Who  first  conceived  the  idea  of  the  mooti's  being  in- 
habited ? — I  have  no  objection  to  hit  becoming  a  merchant. — Did  you  hear 
of  My  teaching  school  at  Huntsville  ? — ^They  were  surprised  at  her  reading 
so  well. 

r>58.  A  participle  thus  modified  by  a  substantive  m  the  possessive  case 
\A  used  independently. 

669.  A  participle  modified  by  a  substantive  in  the  possessive  does 
not  become  a  noun.  This  is  shown  by  its  sometimes  taking  an  object 
and  being  modified  by  an  adverb, — like  the  participle  taking  in  this  sen- 
tence. 

667.  B«eiU  Bal«  XIV.,  relatioff  to  a  rabttantlre  modlOin?  a  participle.  Give 
•xanples,  and  in  aneh  tell  what  the  poweaslve  modifle*.  658.  How  in  a  pnrtlcipic 
modllUd  bj  a  pOMMstva  UMd  f    6Ml  Prov*  that  a  parUolple  modified  by  a  aab- 


240  POSSESSIVE  BEFOEE   A   PAETICIPLE. 

660.  When  a  participle  relates  to  a  substantive,  the 
substantive  is  the  leading  word.  When  a  participle  is 
modified  by  a  possessive,  the  participle  is  the  leading 
word.  Use,  therefore,  the  former  of  these  constructions, 
if  the  substantive  denotes  the  leading  subject  of  dis- 
course ;  the  latter,  if  the  participle  denotes  it. 

"  Cicero,  fearing  an  outbreak,  bade  Catiline  leave  the  city."  It  was 
Cicero  that  bade  Catiline  leave ;  hence  we  make  the  noun  Cicero  the  sub- 
ject, and  join  the  participle  to  it  as  a  modifier.  "  Cicero,  allowing  Cati- 
line to  leave  the  city,  may  appear  strange  to  some."  Wrong,  because  it 
is  not  Cicero  that  may  appear  strange,  but  his  allowing  Catiline  to  leave 
the  city.  We  therefore  change  Cicero  to  the  possessive,  that  it  may  mod- 
ify the  participle,  and  make  the  whole  participial  clause  the  subject  of  the 
verb  may  appear :  "  Cicero's  allowing  Catiline  to  leave  the  city  may  ap- 
pear strange  to  some." 

661.  If  the  use  of  the  participle  is  attended  with 
awkwardness  or  obscurity,  substitute  for  it  a  noun,  an 
infinitive,  a  finite  verb  with  that,  or  some  other  equiva- 
lent construction. 

"  A  man's  utterly  neglecting  the  laws  of  health  must  sooner  or  later 
bring  on  disease."  Correct  thus  :  "  An  utter  neglect  of  the  laws  of  health 
must  sooner  or  later  bring  on  disease."  *'  They  refuse  accepting  the  offered 
mercy."  Say,  '*  They  refuse  to  accept,"  or  simply  "  They  refuse  the  of- 
fered mercy."  "  I  remember  its  being  considered  quite  a  voyage  to  ascend 
the  Hudson  to  Albany."  Improve  thus  :  "I  remember  that  it  was  consid- 
ered," &c.  "  The  English  language's  containing  so  many  synonymes  is 
explained  by  our  having  drawn  our  words  from  so  many  different  sources." 
Very  awkward,  and  inadmissible;  say,  "The  fact  that  the  English  lan- 
guage contains  so  many  synonymes  is  explained  by  our  having  drawn  our 
words  from  so  many  different  sources." 

Btantlve  in  the  possesBive  does  not  become  a  noun.  660.  When  a  participle  relates 
to  a  subetantive,  which  is  the  leading  word  ?  When  a  participle  is  modified  by  a 
Bubstantive,  which  is  the  leading  word  ?  How  are  we  to  choose  between  these 
constructions?  Illustrate  this.  661.  What  must  be  done,  if  the  use  of  the  par- 
ticiple is  attended  with  awkwardness  or  obscurity  ?  Give  an  example  in  which  a 
noun  should  be  substituted  for  the  participle.  Give  one  in  which  an  infinitivo 
should  be  Bubstituted.  Give  one  in  which  a  finite  verb  with  that  should  b©  Bubsti- 
tuted. 


0ON6TKUCT10N    OF    PABTICIl'LES.  241 

FALSE      SYNTAX. 

Under  §  657.  There  is  no  hope  of  such  a  man  keeping  pace 
with  the  spirit  of  tlie  age. 

( Corrected. — There  is  no  hope  of  such  a  man's  keeping  pace 
with  the  spirit  of  tlie  age.  Man  must  be  changed  to  the  posses- 
sive man's^  to  modify  the  participle  keying.] 

A  sense  of  self-respect  prevents  us  indulging  in  recrimination. — 
Have  you  ever  heard  of  a  pear  being  grafted  on  a  mountain-ash  ? — 
There  is  no  probability  of  Stephen  arriving  to-day. — What  do  you 
think  of  him  visiting  Germany  ? — Even  the  tops  of  mountains  fur- 
nish us  with  evidence  of  the  world  haviug  been  overflowed  by  a 
deluge. 

Under  §  660.  Somd  people  think  there  is  no  advantage  in 
children  studying  Greek. — Plutarch,  commencing  the  study  of 
Latin  when  nearly  eighty  years  old,  appears  almost  incredible. — I 
can  not  understand  them  refusing  to  receive  you. — I  place  no  con- 
fidence in  a  man's  boasting  of  what  he  can  do. 

Under  §  661.  We  shall  hereafter  forbear  endeavormg  to  con- 
ciliate them. — A  nation's  extending  its  territory  too  widely  has 
sometimes  proved  fatal  to  its  existence. — The  having  committed 
yourself  to  an  error  is  no  excuse  for  continuing  in  that  error. — 
Arnold's  betraying  of  the  trust  reposed  in  him  was  unpardonable. — 
This  accidental  discovering  of  gold  in  Australia  led  to  the  emigra- 
tion of  thousands  thither. 

Miscellaneous. — Active  measures  were  taken  for  the  more 
•peedily  restoring  of  order. — It  is  not  by  the  adding  to  what  we 
have,  but  by  the  cutting  off  artificial  wants,  tliat  we  become  truly 
rich. — Now  is  the  time  for  retrenching  of  unnecessary  expenses 
and  diligently  employing  of  every  moment. — Such  an  emptying 
purses  was  perhaps  never  seen  before. — I  can  not  approve  of  any 
one's  persisting  in  such  deceit. — Among  the  most  important  du- 
ties of  the  Christian  is  setting  of  a  good  example  to  his  fellow 
men. 

The  doing  justice  to  so  complicated  a  case  will  require  the  con- 
sulting many  authorities. — By  teaching  of  others  we  learn  many 
things  ourselves. — Is  there  any  prospect  of  a  telegraph  cable 
being  laid  across  the  Atlantic  ? — There  is  some  doubt  of  the  Cru- 
sades having  benefited  Europe. — Who  ever  heard  of  a  hyena  being 
tamed? 

11 


242  THE  ADVEEB. 

LESSON   LXXXYIII. 

ADVERBS. -FALSE  SYNTAX. 


RULE  XY.— The  Advefs. 

662.  An  adverb  relates  to  the  word  or  words  whose 
meaning  it  modifies,  or  stands  independently  in  the 
sentence. 

Examples. — ^Try  hard. — Far  out  at  sea,  we  saw  a  very  singular  sight — 
Are  you  quite  in  the  dark  ?  Yes. — We  shall  certainly  leave  befwe  he  ar- 
rives.— By  and  by  there  was  a  great  noise. — You  may  go  further  and  fare 
worse  ;  consequently ^  you  might  as  well  remain. 

663.  Do  not  use  how^  as  how^  or  how  ihat^  for 
the  conjunction  that  *j  or  how^  for  lest  or  that  not. 

"  She  said  as  hoio  she  would  come."  "  Have  a  care  how  you  listen  to 
the  tempter."  Correct  thus  :  "  She  said  that  she  would  come."  "  Have  a 
care  that  you  do  not  listen  to  the  tempter." 

QQ4z.  Do  not  use  the  adverb  no  for  not 

No  is  used  independently  in  answering  questions ;  or  it  may  modify 
an  adjective  or  adverb  in  the  comparative  degree.  But  it  must  not  be 
joined  to  an  adjective  in  the  positive  degree,  or  to  a  verb,  expressed  or 
understood.  We  say  no  wiser,  no  sooner  ;  but,  "  Handsome  or  not  [that 
is,  not  handsome\  I  admire  her."  "  Will  you  promise  or  not  [that  is,  not 
jyromise'l  ?  "    In  the  last  two  examples,  no  would  be  wrong. 

665.  In  expressing  a  negation,  do  not  use  two  nega- 
tives in  the  same  clause  or  member ;  as,  "  I  did  not  do 
nothing.''^  "  It  makes  no  difference  to  you  nor  me." 
Correct  by  omitting  or  changing  one  of  the  negatives  : 
^*  I  did  not  do  anything^''  or  "  I  did  nothing."  "  It 
makes  no  difference  to  you  or  me." 

662.  Recite  Rule  XV.,  relating  to  adverbs.  Give  examples,  and  in  each  men- 
tion  to  what  the  adverb  relatea.  663.  What  must  not  be  used  for  the  conjunction 
that  ?  664.  What  must  not  be  used  for  not  7  How  may  no  be  used  ?  What  may 
it  modify  ?    To  what  must  It  not  be  joined  t    Illustrate  this.    666.  In  expressinfi 


OOKSTEUCnON   AKD   POSITION    OF   ADVEEBS.  243 

666.  Exctptiotu. — 1.  A  negatiTe  may  be  repeated  in  the  same  cUuue 
or  mcmlxjr ;  as,  *'  Aot  rank,  not  wealth,  constitutea  true  liappineas." 

2.  Two  correlative  negatives  maybe  used;  aa,  ^'Jicil/ier  rank  nor 
wealth  constitutes  true  happiness." 

8.  A  negative,  and  a  derivative  formed  with  a  negative  prefix,  may  be 
nsed  together,  to  express  an  affirmation ;  as,  *'  .A  or  is  it  ituprojjer" — that 
is,  it  ia  proper. 

667.  Two  n^atives  formerly  strengthened  the  negation,  and  were  used 
for  tliis  purpose  by  old  writers.  Thus  in  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  we  read, 
"  By  no  means  be  not  seen,"  While  we  have  discarded  such  constructions 
generally,  we  still  retain  another  negative  with  but  in  tlie  common  form  of 
expression  can  not  biU.     "  1  can  not  but  rejoice." 

6(58.  Tlie  rules  laid  down  for  the  comparative  and 
tlie  superlative  degree  in  §  612,  613,  under  adjectives, 
apply  also  to  adverbs. 

The  former  of  the  terms  compared  must  be  excluded  from  the  latter 
when  the  comparative  is  used,  but  included  when  we  use  the  sui>erlative. 
"  The  elephant  is  said  to  live  longer  tlian  any  other  animal."  *'  The  ele- 
phant is  said  to  liv«  the  longest  of  all  animals  [not  of  any  anitnal].** 

669.  Position. — Adverbs  should  stand  near  the 
words  to  which  they  relate.  They  generally  precede 
adjectives,  stand  after  the  first  auxiliary  in  compound 
tenses,  and  in  other  tenses  follow  the  verb.  Observe 
the  position  of  the  adverbs  in  the  following  ex- 
amples : — 

Examples. — Qttite  pretty ;  very  pretty;  «o  pretty ;  pretty  enough. — ^He 
was  easily  saved. — He  was  saved  easily  enough. — He  might  easily  have 
lx>cn  saved. — He  ought  to  be  aerioudy  reprimanded. — Always  dare  to  act 
right. — Never  betray  a  tnist. — Having  never  betrayed  a  tru.st,  I  can  look 
my  neighbors  proudly  in  the  face. — Doum  came  tlie  rain. — The  rain  came 
dovn. 

When  there  is  a  choice  of  positions,  select  the  one  that  best  suita 
the  ear. 


a  nefcation,  what  xna»t  not  be  used  t  666.  In  what  two  caaM  may  two  aegatlves  be 
a«cd  f  With  what  kind  of  a  derivative  may  a  negative  be  aaod  t  667.  What  was 
formprly  the  effect  of  two  negativrat  What  oonstniction  with  adonble  negative 
have  we  retained  I  668.  What  prineiplM  apply  to  the  comparative  and  the  super- 
lative degree  of  adverbe  t    660.  Qive  the  role  for  the  poaitioo  of  adverbe,  and  IV 


I 


244  POSITION   OF  ADVERBS. 

670.  Care  must  be  taken  to  place  only  and  not  only 
next  to  the  word  or  words  they  are  intended  to  mod- 
ify. Otherwise  they  give  a  wrong  impression  of  the 
meaning. 

If  I  say,  "  He  only  hires  the  store,*"  only  modifies  hireft^  and  the  im* 
pression  conveyed  ia  that  another  verb  will  follow :  He  only  hire*  the 
store,  he  does  not  own  it  If  I  say,  "  He  hires  only  the  store,**  only  modi- 
fies store^  and  the  meaning  is,  He  hires  the  store,  but  nothing  else — ^not 
the  rest  of  the  house. 

"  He  not  only  reads  Latin  but  Greek."  Wrong,  because  not  only  is 
80  placed  as  to  modify  read»^  as  if  some  other  verb  were  to  follow :  He 
not  only  reads  Latin,  but  also  writes  it  But  not  only  is  intended  to  modi- 
fy Latin^  and  must  thei-efore  be  placed  next  to  it:  "He  reads  not  only 
Latin  but  Greek." 

671.  So,  the  adverbs  chief  y,  mostly,  &c,  must  stand  immediately  be- 
fore or  after  an  adjunct  that  they  are  intended  to  modify ;  as,  "  The  pro- 
ductions consist  mostly  [not  mostly  consist]  of  com  and  cotton."  "It 
was  by  hunting  and  fishing  chiefly  that  tlie  Indians  subsisted," — not,  "  It 
was  by  hunting  and  fishing  that  the  Indians  chiefly  subsisted." 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Under  §  668,  664.  We  thus  see  how  afflictions  are  often  sent 
for  our  good. — ^Do  you  think  as  how  it  will  rain  to-day  ? — Kossuth 
heard  how  that  the  army  had  surrendered. — Take  care  how  you 
associate  with  the  wicked. — It  is  uncertain  whether  the  planets 
are  inhabited  or  no. — Ready  or  no,  you  must  start  at  once. — ^All 
men  grow  old,  whether  they  will  or  no. 

Undeb  §  666.  Don't  you  care  for  nobody  ?— Nothing  was 
never  gained  by  dishonesty. — No  other  king  of  Israel  was  so  wise 
nor  powerful  as  Solomon. — Let  no  one  at  no  time  speak  irrever- 
ently in  your  presence  unrebuked. — In  this  connection  no  prin- 
ciples can  be  laid  down,  nor  no  rules  given,  that  will  cover  every 
l)oint. — We  can  not  in  no  way  ascertain  the  exact  size  of  the  fixed 
stars. 

lastrate  It  with  examples.  When  there  Is  a  choice  of  ixwitions,  by  what  must  ww 
be  guided  ?  670.  What  oantion  is  ^iven  in  the  case  of  only  and  not  only  7  Prove 
by  an  example  that  a  change  In  the  position  of  only  alters  the  meaning.  Show  how 
i%ot  only  may  be  plaoed  Incorrectly.  67L  How  must  the  adverbs  chiefly,  moaily^ 
tec,  stand f 


FALBE   SYNTAX.  245 

Uhdcr  I  668.  Railroadfl  open  up  a  country  the  most  rapidly 
of  any  internal  improvements. — Chess  fascinates  its  votaries  more, 
perhaps,  than  any  game.--Of  all  other  bubbles,  the  Mississippi 
Bcheiuo  terminated  the  most  disastrously. — Linnajus  was  the  most 
enthusiastic  and  industrious  of  other  naturalists. 

Under  §  669.  lie  must  have  certainly  been  detained. — The) 
twice  pi\  e,  that  quickly  give. — Trust  the  wicked  not. — Uaviup  ncit 
studied  Italian,  you  can  not  so  well  eiijoy  the  beauties  of  Petrarch 
as  otherwise  you  might  do. — Think  of  Balboa  now,  as  the  broad 
Pacific  burst  on  his  enraptured  eyes  gloriously. — If  we  ever  so 
little  transgress  the  laws  of  nature,  ultimately  we  rue  it. 

Under  §  670,  671.  We  not  only  obtained  L<Mii8iana,  but 
Florida  also,  by  purchase. — If  education  refined  only  the  manners, 
we  might  do  without  it ;  but  it  also  disciplines  the  mind  and  im- 
proves the  heart. — California  not  only  produces  gold  in  great 
abundance,  but  quicksilver  also. — The  Russians  mostly  belong  to 
the  Greek  church.— It  was  by  the  English,  French,  Spanish  and 
Dutch,  that  the  new  world  was  principally  colonized. 


LESSON  LXXXIX. 

PREPOSITIONS. -FALSE   SYNTAX. 


RULE  XVI.— The  Preposition. 

672.  A  preposition  shows  the  relation  that  a  substan- 
tive, infinitive,  or  participle  bears  to  some  other  word 
or  words  in  the  sentence. 

ExAurvts. — Contrary  to  my  expectations,  I  found  the  performanccn 

'     '  '    U^n. —  Without  concealing  anything,  ti-ll  me  whether  he  isoM/ 

I. — The  silvery  beami  fell  ojtlaut  the  earth. — Pursue  your  w«y 

trtt/t  a  t>oId  heart,  trusting  to  Uim,  who  is  ever  a  sure  help  in  time  of 

ncotl. 

678.  After  certain  verbs,  6v  is  used  before  a  word  donotinj?  an  agent 
or  living  ot^ect,  with  before  a  word  denoting  an  instrument  or  inanimate 

673.  R««it«  Role  X  VI.,  rplatinf  to  prepoaltlona.  Glm  emnple*,  and  point  oat 
te  Meh  ihe  ttrma  of  th»  rvlaUoo  denoted  by  tiM  prBpoattloo.    011  How  ar»  bf 


246 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   PREPOSITIONS. 


object.  We  say,  accompanied  by  his  friends,  accompanied  with  illnstra* 
tions;  attended  63/ a  servant,  attended  it't^A  evil  consequences;  illustrated 
by  an  artist,  with  engravings ;  killed  by  an  assassin,  with  a  dagger.  Folr 
iowed  takes  by  only. 

674.  Between  and  betwixt  must  be  used  of  two  objects  only ;  among 
and  atnongst^  of  three  or  more ;  as,  "  Between  you  and  me,  I  will  divide 
this  farm  among  my  three  sons.** 

675.  Certain  prepositions  must  follow  certain  wordsc 
Even  tlie  same  word  sometimes  takes  different  prepo- 
sitions, according  to  the  sense  in  which  it  is  used.  The 
pupil  will  find  below  a  list  of  words  with  the  proper 
preposition  annexed,  covering  those  cases  in  which 
there  is  the  greatest  tendency  to  error. 


Abhorrent  to. 

Accommodate  (adapt)  one  thing  to 
another ;  (supply)  a  person  with. 

Accuse  of^  not  with. 

Acquaint  with. 

Acquit  of. 

Adapted  to. 

Adequate  to. 

Adhere,  adherence,  to. 

Angry  vdth  a  person,  at  a  thing. 

Antipathy  <o,  against. 

Arrive  a/,  iw,  not  to. 

Averse  /o,  from. 

Bestow  on. 

Charge  a  thing  on  a  person ;  a  per- 
son with  a  thing. 

Compare  with  (in  respect  of  quali- 
ty) ;  to  (by  way  of  illustration). 
**I  compare  Pope  with  Dryden, 
hope  to  an  anchor." 


Confide  in. 

Conform,  conformity,  to,  with. 

Copy  after  a  person,  from  nature. 

Correspond  with,  to. 

Deprive  of. 

Die  of  a  disease ;  by  an  instrument, 
by  one's  own  hand,  by  violence. 

Differ  with  a  person  in  opinion, 
from  a  person  or  thing  in  some 
quality. 

Different /rom,  not  to. 

Disappointed  of  a  thing  not  ob- 
tained, in  a  thing  obtained. 

Dislike  to. 

Enamom-ed  of. 

Entrance  into. 

Foreign  to,  from. 

Founded  on  or  upon  a  basis;  in 
truth  or  error. 

Frightened  at. 


»nd  with  need  after  certain  verbs?  Illustrate  this.  What  doe»  followed  takef 
674.  How  are  between  and  betwixt  to  be  distingaished  in  use  from  among  and 
amongst?  675.  WTiat  is  said  of  the  necessity  of  using  prepositions  in  certain 
caseo?  What  prepositions  are  used  after  accommodate  in  its  different  senses  <eco 
the  list)?  After  compare?  After  prevail?  After  reconcile ?  When  must  on  bo 
used  after  charge,  and  when  with  7  When  must  of  be  used  after  disappointed, 
and  when  in  ?    When  must  with  be  used  after  overwhelmed,  and  when  by  ? 


CONSTRUCTION   OF  PEEPOSITIONS. 


247 


Incorporate  tnto,  with. 

IndependcDtly  of,  not  on, 

Initiatioa  into. 

Inroad  into. 

Liberal  of  what  b  given. 

Meddle  with. 

Need  of. 

Overwhelmed  with  a  feeling,  with 

shame;    by  an    agent,   by    the 

waves. 
Partake,  commonly  o/",  sometimes 

in. 
Participate  with  a    person,   in  a 

thing. 
Prefer,  preferable,  to. 


Prevail  on,  upon,  with  (persuade) ; 

over,  against  (overcome). 
Reconcile    (make    friendly)    to  ; 

(make  consL^tent)  vnth. 
Redolent  of. 
Remonstrate  with  a  person,  againU 

a  thing. 
Bid  of. 

Skilful  in,  at. 

Smile  cU,  (to  express  favor)  on. 
Suitable  to,  for. 
Sympathize  udth. 
Vest  a  thing  in  a  person,  a  person 

with  a  tiling. 
Weary  o/. 


FALBB    SYNTAX. 

Under  §  673.  Here  is  a  life  of  Johnson,  accompanied  by  co- 
pious extracts  from  his  writings. 

[Corrected. — Here  is  a  life  of  Johnson,  accompanied  mth  co- 
pious extracts  from  his  writings.  By  must  be  changed  to  with^ 
because  aeeompanied  is  foUowed  by  toith^  before  a  word  denoting 
an  inanimate  object.] 

The  queen  was  attended  with  a  large  retinne ;  her  arrival  was 
hailed  by  rejoicings. — Here  our  travellers  were  surrounded  with 
a  troup  of  monkeys. — My  departure  was  attended  by  many  mis- 
givings.— With  whom  were  you  accompanied? — We  were  over- 
come by  sorrow. — The  good  ship  sunk,  overwhelmed  with  the 
surging  waters. 

Under  §  074.  Distribute  these  presents  between  James  and 
his  brothers. — I  never  hefore  saw  so  great  a  resemblance  among 
twins. — A  quarrel  arose  amongst  the  old  soldiers  and  the  recruits.— 
He  divides  his  time  betwixt  law,  medicine,  and  politics. 

Under  §  676.  We  all  have  need  for  some  one  on  whom  we  can^ 
confide. — Long  and  bitterly  have  I  repented  for  the  crime  with 
which  I  am  now  accused. — Every  person  should  conform  his 
practice  with  his  preaching. — She  smiles  at  all  that  profess  to  be 
enamoured  with  her. — Marius  waa  liberal  with  his  money,  and 
still  more  liberal  in  promises. — Rid  yourself  from  such  prejudice*. 


248         CONSTRUCTION  OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

or  people  will  be  disgusted  at  you. — Meddle  not  in  what  does  not 
concern  you. 

Your  theory  seems  to  be  founded  on  truth,  yet  it  is  quite  dif- 
ferent to  any  that  I  have  hitherto  heard  advanced. — Profit  from 
the  lessons  thus  taught; — How  do  you  reconcile  his  professions  to 
his  conduct. — This  should  be  incorporated  in  the  book. — I  am 
compelled  to  differ  from  you. — Far  preferable  is  a  private  life 
than  this  constant  turmoil. — Honey  redolent  with  spring  per- 
fumed the  air. — For  the  unfortunate  the  good  man  always  sympar- 
thizes,  but  not  for  the  wicked. 


LESSON  XC. 

CONJUNCTIONS.  — FALSE    SYNTAX. 


RULE  XYn.— The  Conjunction. 

676.  A  conjunction  connects  words,  sentences^  or 
parts  of  a  sentence. 

Examples. — Notwithstanding^  if  you  will  examine  the  subject  more 
closely,  you  will  see  that  I  am  right. — Let  us  do  right,  whether  other  men 
do  so  or  not. — Yet  no  lyric  poet  is  more  sublime  than  he. — Pindar,  than 
who  no  lyric  poet  is  more  sublime,  was  a  Theban. — They  overran  Italy,  and 
the  Eastern  Empire  as  toell. 

677.  Do  not  use  if  for  whether, — or  hut,  hit  that,  or 
lest  for  that, — after  the  verbs  dovht,feaT,  deny,  or  their 
equivalents. 

"  Do  you  know  if  [correct  to  whether'\  a  train  will  start  this  evening  ?  " 
"Pope  was  apprehensive  lest  [say  that"]  his  meaning  might  be  mistaken," 
"  Nobody  can  deny  hut  that  [say  that']  experience  is  the  best  teacher." 

678.  Do  not  use  hut  for  than,  after  dse,  other,  or 
otherwise. 


676.  Recite  Rule  XVII.,  relating  to  conjunctions.  Give  examples,  and  in  each 
tell  what  the  conjunction  connects.  677.  What  must  not  be  used  for  whether  7 
What  must  not  be  used  for  that  7  Give  examples  of  the  improper  use  of  these 
ooujunctionfc.    678.  What  conjunction  must  be  used  after  else,  other,  and  otherwweJ 


CONSTRUCTION    OF   CONJUNCTIONS.  249 

*' Prevarication  is  nothing  else  btU  [correct  to  than]  falsehood." 
•*  There  is  no  other  way  of  pleasing  some  people  but  [say  than]  by  flat- 
tering them."  "  Who  could  do  otherwise  but  [say  thati]  accept  so  cordial 
an  invitation  ?  " 

670.  T/ian,  which  is  used  after  the  comparative  de- 
gree, is  always  a  coiijunctioD,  and  does  not  govern  the 
objective  case. 

Milton  says  *'/Aan  whom  none  higher  sat";  and  other  writers,  follow- 
ing him,  liave  construed  than  with  the  objective,  as  if  it  were  a  preposi- 
tion. This  is  ungrammatical  and  should  be  avoided.  Than  has  no  gov- 
erning power,  but  is  followed  by  the  nominative,  possessive,  or  objective, 
according  to  the  relation  sustained  to  some  word  or  words  underatood. 
"You  are  taller  tlian  he  [in]."  "Your  hand  is  larger  than /i  is  [hand].'* 
"  I  love  you  more  than  [I  love]  /<iw."  *'  Than  tcho  [sat]  none  higher  sat" 
*'  Than  whose  [head]  no  head  is  higher."  "  Than  [I  love]  tchorn  I  love 
none  more." 

680.  "Wlien  two  words  or  clauses  joined  by  a  con- 
junction have  a  common  connection  with  some  third 
word  or  clause,  this  last  term  must  be  adapted  in  con- 
struction to  both  of  the  preceding  ones. 

**  Henry  is  older,  but  not  so  large,  as  Thomas."  Wrong,  because  the 
last  term  as  can  not  be  properly  used  with  the  first  term  older  ;  we  can 
not  say  older  as  Thomas.  For  a  similar  reason  it  is  wrong  to  say,  "  He  ia 
older,  but  not  so  tall,  than  Thomas."  Correct  thus :  "  Henry  is  older  than 
Thomas,  but  not  so  tall." 

"  You  can  not  bestow  or  bequeath  it  to  a  more  deserving  person."  We 
can  not  say  bestow  to.  Change  bestow  to  ffive,  and  then  the  preposition  to 
will  be  applicable  to  both  verbs :  "  You  can  not  give  or  bequeath  it  to  a 
more  deserving  person." 

681.  Certain  conjunctions   are  used  in  contiguous 

What  tna«t  not  be  used  after  them  t  679.  What  is  Mid  of  thant  Wliat  expres- 
idun  doee  Milton  usof  With  what  bavo  other  writers  oonstrucd  than?  What  !• 
aaid  of  this  coimtruction  f  Wlint  determines  the  case  of  tbe  substantive  following 
thanJ  Give  examples.  680.  What  is  required,  when  two  words  or  claase* 
Joined  by  a  conjunction  have  a  common  connection  with  some  third  word  or 
elausot  IHoKt rate  this  rule.  681.  When  are  conjunctions  said  to  be  correlative*  f 
Mention  some  correlative  conjunctions.  What  must  be  used  as  the  correlative  of 
neiihrr  t    What  eorrehitivos  mui>t  be  tued  after  a  negative  denying  equality  at  d» 

fTvi:  1 

11* 


250  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

clauses  as  correlatives:   as,  though^  yet;  hothy  and; 
either y  or  /  whether ^  or. 

There  is  no  liability  to  error  in  the  use  of  these  correlatives,  except  in 
two  cases. 

1.  Be  careful  to  use  nw,  not  w,  as  the  correlative  of  neither.  "  Neither 
youth  nor  [not  or]  innocence  availed  as  a  protection." 

2.  Be  careful  to  use  «o,  as — ^not  as,  as — after  a  negative  denying 
equality  of  degree.  "  Few  ancient  cities  were  so  [not  as]  magnificent  as 
Babylon." 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Under  §  677.  I  doubt  if  the  world  ever  saw  such  a  fleet 
before. 

[Corrected. — I  doubt  whether  the  world  ever  saw  such  a  fleet 
before.     If  must  not  be  used  for  whether.] 

It  is  uncertain  if  a  swan  lives  longer  than  a  raven. — Can  you 
tell  me  if  the  Danube  is  the  longest  river  in  Europe  ? — I  am  fear- 
ful lest  the  storm  may  overtake  them. — There  is  no  doubt  but  that 
Germany  has  produced  many  great  men. — You  certainly  can  not 
doubt  but  he  will  keep  his  promise. 

Under  §  678.  Washington  had  nothing  else  at  heart  but  his 
country's  good. — Never  act  otherwise  but  honorably. — What  other 
motive  but  the  purest  patriotism  could  have  stimulated  him  to 
such  sacrifices? — She  would  not  have  done  it  for  any  one  else  but 
him. 

Under  §  679.  There  are  many  noble  women,  but  none  nobler 
than  her. — Even  Blair,  than  whom  few  rhetoricians  stand  higher, 
frequently  makes  grammatical  mistakes. — I  look  on  none  with 
more  contempt  than  they. 

Under  §  680.  Quicksilver  is  not  so  useful,  but  more  valuable, 
than  iron. — The  moon  is  nearer,  though  not  so  bright,  as  the  sun. 
— This  honor  should  be  conferred  and  confined  to  the  best  stu- 
dent.— The  road  is  longer  and  inferior  to  what  we  supposed  it 
would  be. — Sin  is  generally  accompanied  and  followed  by  re- 
proaches of  conscience. 

Under  §  681.  Such  idlers  should  neither  be  pitied  or  assisted. 
— Neither  the  wastes  of  Sahara  or  the  parched  plains  of  central 
Australia  seem  to  have  been  designed  for  the  habitation  of  man 
or  beast. — Neither  Europe  or  Africa  is  as  large  as  Asia. — ^Nothing 


FAL8B  SYNTAX  251 

else  pleasM  a  weak  mind  £8  much  as  flattcrjr.— Few  lived  as 
plaiuly  as  Mohammed. 


LESSON   XCI. 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISE    IN    FALSE    SYNTAX. ' 

682.  Further  exercises  in  false  syntax,  promiscuously 
arranged,  are  now  presented  for  correction.  They  may 
be  divided  into  lessons  of  convenient  length. 

You  and  me — the  Almighty  hath  created  both. — I  wish  I  was 
herl  Yes,  but  to  bo  her  is  impossible. — No  one  could  have  acted 
more  gallantly  than  bim  who  bore  the  standard  of  the  legion. — 
This  ring  is  almost  as  dear  to  me  as  her  who  gave  it. — And  theo 
too,  brave  son  of  Abas — 1  saw  thee  fall. — The  principal  is  not  only 
due,  but  also  five  years  interest. 

The  first  of  April  is  called  All  fools  Day. — Beds  are  stuffed 
with  cat-tails',  but  not  with  cats'  tails. — For  common  decency 
sake,  be  silent. — John  Ray,  his  book. — Demosthenes  orations  are 
more  nervous  than  iEschines. — I  have  read  Cowper  and  Pope's 
Translation  of  Ilomer ;  the  one  is  in  rhyme,  the  other  in  blank 
verse. — Here  is  the  three  judges'  of  the  supremo  court  opinion. — 
The  historian  Josephus  works  are  written  in  Greek. 

Victoria's  and  Albert's  eldest  daughter  has  married  the  prince 
of  Prussia. — Bancroft's,  the  historian's,  reputation  is  deservedly 
great. — The  governor's  of  Texas  life  has  been  an  eventful  one. — 
These  volumes  are  Mr.  Day's  clerk's  wife's  brother's. — Rumors 
of  the  death  of  the  captain  of  the  Star  of  the  West,  of  Liverpool, 
were  current  in  Wall  Street. — He  who  is  wise  in  his  own  conceit 
I  never  could  tolerate. — Two  court-martials  were  held. 

Send  up  fifty  pound  of  butter,  some  pickled  sheeps'  tongues, 
and  ten  heads  of  fat  cattle. — Let  all  good  men  rejoice  at  this,  even 
he  who  has  never  rejoiced  before. — I  do  not  wish  for  any  coffee 
this  morning. — Distribute  a  few  pence  among  those  two  poor 
dwarves. — Beware  evil  practices. — Montezuma  was  denied  even 
this  slight  favor. — David  and  Jonathan  loved  one  another. 

La  Fayette  was  voted  a  township  of  land  and  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars  by  Congress. — Those  men,  who  thought  them* 


252  MISCELLAlfEOUS   EXERCISE 

selves  more  wiser  than  others,  have  fallen  a  victim  to  their  owti 
passions. — "Were  you  paid  the  money  ?— Oxford  University  is  of 
eight  centuries  old. — Each  pupil  is  expected  to  govern  themselves. 
— The  mob,  having  next  broken  into  some  jewellers  stores,  begui. 
to  fill  its  pockets  with  precious  stones. 

Whom  do  you  suppose  it  was  ? — Who  do  you  suppose  it  to  be? 
^Where  have  you  bought  them  pencils  ?  At  Mr.  Tilden's,  the 
bookseller's. — Those  who  consider  themselves  a  good  critic  are 
not  so  considered  always  by  others. — I  will  lend  you  my 
tweezers,  if  you  would  be  sure  to  return  it. — The  people  of 
Finland  is  called  Finns'. — Be  sure  not  to  tell  nobody  whom  you 
are. 

He  was  able  to  have  supported  himself  and  family,  and  cer- 
tainly ought  to. — Nothing  hurts  my  feelings  more  nor  as  much 
as  a  friend's  betraying  of  the  trust  I  have  reposed  on  him. — Every 
soldier  exerted  themselves  to  the  utmost,  as  if  on  them  alone  de- 
pended the  issue  of  the  battle. — Full  many  a  good  man  is  over- 
looked in  this  world ;  but  in  the  world  to  come  his  good  deeds 
will  be  remembered. — He  said  as  how  he  would  come. 

Saturn  is  surrounded  with  three  bright  rings,  the  inner  one 
of  which  is  nineteen  thousand  miles  from  the  surface  of  the 
planet. — The  jury  could  not  agree,  and  so  the  judge  allowed  it 
to  separate. — The  board  of  directors  looked  gravely;  in  fact  a 
frown  begun  to  settle  on  its  face. — Can  nothing  be  done  to  induce 
this  fop  and  coxcomb  to  abandon  their  folly  ? — These  here  mos- 
quitoes are  very  troublesome. — It  was  this  same  Cortez  who  con- 
quered Mexico. 

Saint  and  sinner  will  rise  together  at  the  last  day,  to  hear  his 
doom  pronounced. — The  most  beautiful  people  which  are  known 
are  the  Circassians. — It  seems  as  if  one  or  the  other  must  lose 
their  life  in  the  conflict.— Otis,  as  well  as  Hancock,  raised  their 
voices  against  this  new  aggression. — Some  German  critics  main- 
tain (which  I  can  not  believe)  that  no  such  man  as  Homer  never 
lived.— Neither  John  or  his  wife  seem  to  care  much  for  the  ex- 
ample they  set  their  children. 

Elizabeth,  and  her  father  Henry  also,  had  their  favorites. — 
Not  only  Charlemagne,  but  Haroun  al  Raschid  also,  rose  superior 
to  the  princes  of  their  time. — Every  man  has  certain  rights  from 
which  they  can  not  be  deprived. — Francis  did  not  remain  long  in 


IN   FALSE   SYNTAX.  253 

the  school  his  f:ither  placed  him. — No  substance  which  yet  has 
been  discovered  is  as  heavy  as  iridium. 

There  are  two  species  of  butfalo  :  one  inhabiting  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe,  and  which  has  become  very  scarce ;  the  other, 
a  native  of  America,  and  which  is  more  properly  called  the 
bison. — God  watches  over  us  as  a  father,  who  lie  is  even  to 
the  most  unworthy  of  Ilis  creatures. — Tlie  conversation  turned 
on  the  generals  and  battles  who  had  decided  the  fate  of  em- 
pires. 

Hand  me  that  tongs. — lie  lets  houses  and  collects  rents,  and 
by  this  means  manages  to  live. — The  very  events  which  we  most 
deplore  sometimes  turn  out  most  fortunately. — One  or  the  other 
of  us  are  greatly  mistaken  in  their  opinion. — Both  parties  can  not 
be  right ;  you  or  we  must  be  mistaken  in  your  views. — If  either 
the  king  or  queen  knew  the  condition  of  their  subjects,  they  would 
do  their  utmost  to  relieve  them. 

A  snake  was  never  seen  there,  that  I  know  of  [as  far  as  I 
know], — Who  can  be  expected  to  remember  the  names  of  all 
the  authors  and  books  which  the  present  century  has  produced? 
— They  say,  which  I  do  not  believe,  that  some  people  die  of  a 
broken  heart. — The  rattle-snake,  one  of  the  most  poisonous  of 
reptiles,  and  who  grows  from  four  to  six  feet  in  length,  is  only 
found  in  America, 

Every  one  should  try  to  distinguish  themselves  in  their  pro- 
fession.— Measure  out  five  bushel  of  this  oats. — The  old  and  new 
house  were  both  burnt. — Holland,  a  country  that  has  been  rescued 
from  the  sea,  and  which  possesses  very  little  natural  advantages, 
has  been  converted  into  one  vast  garden  by  the  industry  of  its 
inhabitants. — We  have  some  beautiful  variegated  pansies;  here  is 
a  yellow  and  a  blue  one. 

I  admit  it  is  dry,  the  study  of  grammar. — ^Robert  promises  his 
father  that  he  would  take  his  advice  and  try  hard  to  pay  his  debts. 
— Send  home  a  couple  of  gallon  of  those  same  molasses  we  have 
been  using. — Pope  at  one  time  studied  painting,  but  Nature  had 
made  him  a  greater  poet  than  an  artist. 

An  ant  is  a  model  of  provident  industry ;  a  grasshopper  is  a 

r.\n-  of  thoughtless  indolence. — The  self-devotion,  no  less  than 

.  of  La  Fayette,  commands  our  admiration. — It  is  plain 

i.  .iii  liie  movements  of  that  poor  child  that  it  is  grieving  for  his 


254  MISCELLAJSEOUS   EXERCISE 

brother.— Old  stout  gentlemen  are  generally  good-humored. — 
When  Talent  and  Industry  contend  for  the  prize,  the  ktter  is  the 
oftenest  winner. 

The  price  of  cotton  is  fallen. — She  moves  very  graceful. — The 
whole  family  have  lovelily  carried  out  the  principles  of  their  re- 
ligion.— The  room  was  not  sufficiently  het. — They  had  sawed  the 
wood  before  I  seen  what  they  was  doing. — Name  each  king  of 
England  in  succession.  [As  succession  implies  more  than  one,  it 
should  be  Name  the  Icings,  &c.] 

Who  can  contemplate  without  a  shudder  the  hereafter  life  of 
the  wicked  ? — ^It  is  thou  that  has  ruined  me. — The  "  Pleasures  of 
Hope  "  were  written  by  Campbell. — The  moon  was  by  this  time 
risen. — A  humble  mind  is  ever  ready  for  to  acknowledge  its  faults. 
—Every  person  has  their  friends  and  enemies;  the  former  he 
should  seek  to  conciliate,  the  latter  to  confirm  in  their  attachment. 
■■ — Croesus  had  much  possessions. 

He  is  entirely  undeserving  commendation. — Texas  or  Florida, 
if  not  both,  were  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1845. — The  people 
is  united  in  its  determination  to  have  the  most  universal  freedom 
of  suffrage. — You  should  have  made  them  have  shook  those  car- 
pets before  this. — The  indifference,  nay  the  neglect,  of  the  world, 
too  often  blight  the  aspirations  of  genius. — I  wish  that  I  was  in 
Europe. 

The  news  of  the  Constellation's  being  wrecked  and  the  greater 
part  of  her  crew's  being  lost,  were  received  this  morning. — I  have 
heard  how  that  the  human  body  contains  about  thirty  pounds  of 
blood. — "  Crime  and  Mystery"  have  just  been  published. — Neither 
arguments  or  force  was  able  to  make  any  impression. — Do  not 
desert  your  father  or  mother  in  their  old  age. 

The  mind  whence  such  sentiments  could  come,  must  be  de- 
praved hopelessly. — Napoleon  found  Moscow  in  flames,  which 
was  totally  unexpected. — Was  you  able  to  buy  me  a  brass  com- 
passes ? — Them  shoes  are  not  too  large ;  I  have  no  fears  but  what 
they  will  answer. — In  the  torrid  zone,  a  wet  and  dry  season 
take  the  place  of  winter  and  summer. — Prudence  and  courage 
are  both  essential  to  the  good  general ;  this  in  the  councD,  that 
on  the  field. 

Neither  the  horse  or  the  mule  have  as  great  powers  of  en- 
durance as  the  camel. — The  phenomena  observed  last  evening 


IN   FALSE   SYNTAX.  255 

was  well  worth  seeing. — The  youngest  of  my  two  brother-in-laws 
is  ^he  shrewdest. — He,  tired  of  life,  declared  that  nothing  but 
trials  and  disappointments  are  met  with  in  the  world. — In  aban- 
doning of  the  throne,  Charles  V.  hoped  to  have  regained  the 
peace  of  mind  which  ho  hud  long  been  deprived  of.— Have  you 
waken  your  friend  ? 

A  rose  by  any  other  name  would  smell  as  sweetly. — California 
is  now  producing  more  gold  than  any  country  in  the  world. — 
London  is  further  north  than  any  other  city  in  America.— If  Xerxes 
had  have  succeeded  in  conquering  Greece,  what  incalculable 
changes  would  have  been  made  in  the  world's  history ! — I  have  and 
•ver  shall  uisist  on  the  necessity  of  strict  economy  on  the  part  of 
government. — The  rain  disappointed  us  in  our  excursion;  we 
could  not  go. 

Your  garden  looks  much  better  since  you  wed  it. — To  what 
conclusion  do  you  arrive? — Making  the  experiment,  air  was 
found  to  be  impenetrable. — Where  has  the  snuffers  gone? — It 
must  have  been  hard  to  have  endured  such  sufferings. — He  does 
not  mean  to  deliberately  affront  us. — Why  have  you  not  kept  the 
promise  you  have  made  when  I  was  at  your  house  ? 

A  honorable  man  looks  down  upon  the  deceitful  with  su- 
premest  contempt. — La  Fayette  is  the  best  character  of  any  in 
French  history. — He  is  one  of  those  unfortunates  that  is  always 
discontented  with  his  lot. — Has  that  suds  been  thrown  out? — We 
have  now  a  more  promising,  wider,  and  pleasanter  field  for  opera- 
tions.— A  few  hours  delay  is  not  of  much  consequence. 

The  crew  is  loud  in  its  complaints. — The  mule,  if  it  is  less 
handsome  than  the  horse,  is  certainly  the  most  enduring. — Which 
is  the  brightest  of  those  two  stars  ? — The  ladies  of  old  times  seem 
to  implicitly  have  believed  that  they  would  preserve  their  beauty 
by  washing  in  dew. — I,  reflecting  on  the  mutability  of  human 
things,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  all  was  vanity  and  vexation 
of  spirit. 

lie  has  waxen  all  the  threads. — Cairo  is  the  largest  of  any  city 
in  Africa. — Anger  is  a  scorpion  that  stings  itself;  take  care  that 
thou  dost  not  find  it  so. — The  earliest  experiments  with  tlie  air- 
pump  showed  that  air  was  essential  to  life  and  combustion. — Of 
what  nse  are  fierceness  of  geatare  or  loudness  of  tone  to  the 
orator  f — Have  a  care  how  yon  give  way  to  the  first  advances  of 


256  FALSE   SYNTAX. 

sin. — TK-d  way  how  they  give  their  china  ware  such  a  lively  color- 
ing is  a  secret. 

The  question  is  whether  the  people  should  elect  judges  or  no.— 
The  heathens  are  perished  out  of  the  land. — I  told  him  that  if  he 
went  to-morrow  I  shall  go  with  him. — Dwarf  pear-trees  are  some- 
times loaded  down  by  fruit. — Where  is  Robert,  Jane,  and  Frank? 
I  have  some  cherries  to  divide  between  them. 

A  machine  has  been  invented  for  the  more  easily  and  econom- 
ically elevating  of  grain  to  such  heights  as  may  be  required. — ■ 
Just  think  of  me  entering  into  one  of  the  fashionable  saloons  of 
Saratoga  in  such  a  garb. — No  Roman  emperor  was  so  cruel  nor 
tyrannical  as  Nero. — The  Swiss  have  defended  their  liberties  the 
most  resolutely  of  any  other  nation. 

The  manufactures  of  Belgium  chiefly  consist  of  laces,  silks,  and 
carpets. — Can  I  not  prevail  over  you  to  return  with  me  ? — Your 
hat  is  altogether  prettier  and  preferable  to  mine. — I  have  no  other 
friend  but  thou. — Ben  Jonson  says  that  the  poet  Spenser  died  by 
want. — There  were  some  disagreeable  persons  along,  and  so  we 
was  disappointed  of  our  excursion. 

The  weary  sailors  heard  with  delight  the  woods  and  groves  to 
reecho  the  notes  of  countless  songsters,  and  saw  with  rapture  the 
trees  to  bend  under  a  load  of  fruit. — You  must  have  felt  the  needle 
have  passed  into  the  flesh. — ^A  diphthong  consists  of  two  vowels' 
forming  one  sound. — It  is  singular  how  an  uneducated  tinker  could 
have  produced  such  a  great  work. 

Willing  or  no,  we  must  all  die.— An  eclipse  of  the  moon  is 
caused  by  the  earth  getting  between  it  and  the  sun. — No  disease 
was  more  loathsome  nor  more  dreaded  by  the  people  than  lep- 
rosy.— Cotton,  as  a  crop,  is  more  valuable,  but  not  so  certain,  as 
corn. — She  will  not  sing  for  anybody  else  but  he. — She  had  rather 
stay,  if  you  will  promise  to  stay  with  her. — They  dared  not  to 
start. 

He  no  sooner  entered  into  the  house  but  he  came  rushing  out 
again  with  these  bad  news. — Whom,  when  they  had  scourged  him, 
they  let  him  go. — Thou  shouldst  treasure  up  these  counsels  deep 
in  your  heart. — When  money  is  to  be  made,  be  it  never  so  little, 
every  man  strives  their  best  to  be  first  on  the  ground.«^Thej 
compose  the  easiest,  that  have  learned  to  compose. 


RULES  FOB  THE  USE  OF  CAPITALfl.  257 

LESSON  XCII. 

RULES    FOR    CAPITALS 

683.  Most  words  commence  with  small  letters. 
Capitals  must  be  used  when  recjiiired  by  the  following 
rules,  ajid  only  then ; — 

StTLIS  rOR  THX   U8K  OV  CAPITAL   LRTKR8. 

684.  Begin  with  a  capital, 

I.  Every  sentence  and  every  line  of  poetry. 

Examples.— Forget  others*  faults.— How  bright  the  day  I— What  ia 
fame  ? — Custom  forms  us  alL 

*'  Time  is  the  warp  of  life ;  oh !  teU 
The  young,  the  fair,  to  weave  it  well." 

n.  All  proper  nouns,  and  titles  of  office,  honor,  and 
respect. 

ExAVPLES. — Ilcnry  the  Fowler,  emperor  of  the  Germans ;  Robert  Roc, 
Esquire;  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning;  the  Red  River;  the  Strait  of  Gib- 
raltar; High  Bridge;  Union  Square;  the  Superior  Ck>urt  of  the  City  of 
New  York  ;  July ;  Monday. 

m.  All  adjectives  formed  from  proper  nouns. 

Examples. — African,  Italian,  "Welsh,  Ciceronian;  also  adjectives  de- 
noting a  sect  or  religion — Methodist,  Puritan,  Catholic,  Protestant 

IV.  Common  nouns,  when  personified  in  a  direct 
and  lively  manner ;  not  when  sex  merely  is  attributed 
to  an  inanimate  object. 

Examples. — Then  War  waves  his  ensanguined  sword,  and  fair  Peaa 
flees  sighing  to  ew>me  happier  land. — But,  The  sun  pursues  his  fiery  course: 
the  moon  sheds  her  silvery  beams. 

Y.  All  appellations  of  the  Deity,  and  the  pcrsc^iia 
pronouns  T/icni  and  lie  standing  for  Ilis  name. 

888.  How  do  mrmt  word*  commence  t  984.  Recite  Rule  I.  for  the  OM  of  capi- 
tals. In  mioh  example,  tell  which  word  begina  with  «  capital  aocordioK  to  the 
rule.  Recite  Rule  II.  What  adjcettvca  moat  be«cln  with  capiulal  When  muat 
•omaion  nouna  begin  with  capitalat    Recite  Rule  V.     When  must  a  quoted 


258  RULES    FOR   THE   USE   OF   CAPITALS. 

Examples. — The  Almighty ;  the  King  of  kings ;  the  Eternal  Essence ; 
Jehovah ;  the  Supreme  Being ;  our  Father. 

yi.  The  first  word  of  a  complete  quoted  sentence^ 
not  introduced  bj  that^  if^  or  any  other  conjunction. 

Examples. — Thomson  says,  "Success  makes  villains  honest."  But^ 
Thomson  says  that  "  success  makes  villains  honest." 

YII.  Every  noun,  adjective,  and  verb  in  the  titles 
of  books  and  headings  of  chapters. 

Examples. — Butler's  "Treatise  on  the  History  of  Ancient  Philoso- 
phy"; Cousin's  "  Lectures  on  the  True,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good  ". 

YIII.  Words  that  denote  the  leading  subjects  of 
chapters,  articles,  or  paragrajjhs. 

A  word  defined,  for  instance,  may  commence  with  a  capital. — Do  not 
introduce  capitals  too  freely  under  this  rule.  When  in  doubt,  use  a  small 
letter. 

IX.  The  pronoun  Zand  the  interjection  O. 

X.  Words  denoting  great  events,  eras  of  history, 
noted  written  instruments,  extraordinary  physical  phe- 
nomena, and  the  like. 

Examples. — The  Creation ;  the  Confusion  of  Languages ;  the  Restora- 
tion; the  Dark  Ages;  the  Declaration  of  Independence;  the  Aurora 
Borealis. 

XI.  Letters  standing  for  words  are  generally  written 
as  capitals. 

Examples. — a.  d.,  for  anno  Domini^  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  ;  LL.D,» 
for  legum  doctor^  doctor  of  laws. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  small  letters  and  capitals  improperly  used. 

Under  Rule  I. — order  is  heaven's  first  Law. — All  Truth  ia 

sentence  commence  with  a  capital,  and  when  not?  Recite  Rule  VII.,  relating  to 
the  titles  of  books.  Recite  Rule  VIII.  What  may  commence  with  a  capital 
under  this  rule?  WTiat  caution  is  given?  Recite  Rule  IX.  Recite  Rule  X.,  re- 
lating to  words  denoting  great  events,  &c.  Recite  Rule  XI.,  relating  to  lettei-s. 
What  does  a.  d.  stand  for?  What  does  LL.D.  stand  for?  How  are  these  abbre- 
viations written? 


KZERCISB  ON   CAPITALS.  259 

Precious.— how  Fortune  plies  her  Sports  I— is  not  hope  a  llatterer  ? 
— gratitude  is  the  heart's  Memory. — pay  as  you  go. 
be  thou  the  first  true  merit  to  befriend ; 
his  praise  is  Lost  who  stays  till  All  commend. 

Unde3  Rule  II. — The  sarmatians  inhabited  what  is  now  known 
as  poland. — mayor  grey  and  the  Common  council  received  gov- 
ernor haw  kins  and  general  smith  at  the  city  hall,  and  escorted 
them  up  Clinton  avenue  to  The  park. — The  apennines  run  through 
Italy.— oecil,  lord  burleigh,  was  queen  elizabeth's  Premier  for  forty 
Years. 

Under  Rule  III.,  IV. — How  often  we  hear  of  welsh  flannel, 
Irish  whiskey,  scotch  Ale,  london  porter,  Swedish  iron,  dutch  cheese, 
russian  isinglass,  and  french  Lace  I — The  Spanish  minister  and  tlie 
representative  of  the  ottoman  porte  have  just  visited  the  british 
frigate. — Here  are  Byron  Collars  for  sale.— May  health  paint  thy 
cheeks  with  her  brightest  colors  1 

There  pleasure  decks  her  guilty  Bowers, 
And  dark  oppression  builds  her  Towers. 

Under  Rule  V.,  VL — Lift  up  your  hearts  to  the  supreme  ruler 
of  the  Universe. — the  jews  are  still  looking  for  their  messiah, 
their  promised  saviour. — Truly  has  the  Poet  said,  "  the  hand  of 
god  has  written  legibly." — Attila  called  himself  "The  Scourge 
of  god  ". — 'Tissaid  that  "  conscience  is  man's  most  faithful  friend." 
— How  much  truth  there  is  in  this  old  proverb :  "  all  is  not  Gold 
that  glitters." 

Under  Rule  VIL,  IX. — ^for  the  Student  i  think  there  are  few 
Books  more  valuable  than  hallam's  "  introduction  to  the  litera- 
ture of  europe  in  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies."— There  is  much  Wit  in  a  Volume  that  i  have  lately  read, 
entitled  "What  i  saw  in  California;  or,  a  three  months'  tour 
among  the  placers."  Shall  i  reason  further  with  you,  o  ungrate- 
ful men  ? 

Under  Rule  X.,  XI. — A  truthful  history  of  the  days  of 
chivalry,  the  crusades,  and  the  feudal  system,  will  find  Readers 
enough. — Put  your  letter  in  the  p.  o.  before  two  o'clock  p.  m., 
and  you  will  receive  an  answer  by  8  a.  m.  to-morrow. — S.  Jones, 
m.d. 

Miscellanbocs. — the  moors,  having  conquered  northern  africa, 
crossed  the  straits  of  gades,  now  gibraltar,  into  spain,  in  710.— 


2G0  EXEECISE   ON   CAPITALS. 

Bt.  paul  preached  at  philippi  in  Thrace,  a.  d.  51,  the  first  christian 
Sermon  delivered  in  europe. 

maker,  preserver,  my  redeemer,  god ! 

whom  have  i  in  the  heavens  but  thee  alone  ? 

death's  but  a  path  that  must  be  trod, 
if  man  would  ever  pass  to  god. 

Next  with  a  Shudder  i  beheld  consumption's  sunken  Cheek  and 
wasted  Form. — o  pitiless  Destroyer,  spare  thy  Victim! — i  have 
read  in  spenser  that  "love  is  a  celestial  Harmony  of  likely  hearts." 
— fervently  must  we  all  exclaim  :  "may  the  Horrors  of  the  french 
revolution  never  be  repeated  I  '* 


LESSON    XCIII. 

PUNCTUATION. 

685.  Punctnation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  lan- 
guage by  points,  in  order  tliat  the  meaning  may  be 
readily  understood. 

686.  The  Punctuation-points  are  as  follows  : — 

Period,  .  Semicolon,  ; 

Interrogation-point,  ?  Comma,  , 

EXCLAMATION-POINT,  !  DaSH,  

Colon,  :  Parentheses,  (  ) 

Brackets,         [  ] 

687.  The  Period. — A  period  must  be  placed  after 
every  declarative  and  imperative  sentence,  and  every 
abbreviated  word ;  as,  "  Yirtue  is  the  only  nobility." 
"  Obey  your  parents."  "  We  write  Jas.  for  James^ 
^.  Y.  for  ISfew  York,  no.  for  number^  George  /.  for 
George  FirstP 

688.  When  we  have  two  distinct  but  kindred  propositions,  if  they  are 


685.  Define  Punctuation.  686.  Mention  the  punctuation-pointfl.  687.  Givn 
the  rule  for  the  use  of  the  period.  688.  When  we  have  two  distinct  but  kindred 
lyopoBitionB,  what  two  modes  of  punctuating  have  wef    When  must  we  use  the 


THE   PERIOD. 


261 


short,  we  maj  either  8e|Mrate  them  with  the  colon  or  semicolon,  and  thua 
form  one  compound  sentence ;  or  we  may  use  the  period,  and  thus  make 
two  sentences.  Alwajs  follow  the  former  course,  if  the  propositions  arc 
connected  by  the  conjunction  and^foty  or  hovoever ;  for  it  is  not  elegant 
to  commence  a  sentence  with  these  conjunctions. 

"  Adversity  is  llie  touch-stone  of  principle.  Without  it,  a  man  hardly 
knows  whether  he  is  honest  or  not.'*  Here  a  semicolon  may  be  substi* 
tuted  for  the  period  after  principle.  If  the  propositions  are  connected  by 
the  conjunction /or,  a  semicolon  must  be  used  :  "Adversity  is  the  touch- 
stone of  principle  ;  for  without  it,"  &c. 

689.  A  period  after  an  abbreviation  does  not  take  the  place  of  other 
points.  Punctuate  just  as  if  the  word  were  not  abbreviated.  But,  at  the 
end  of  a  sentence  closing  with  an  abbreviation,  only  one  period  must  be 
used.  Thus  :  "Go  to  the  P.  0.,  I  tell  you,  and  ask  for  a  letter  for  H. 
Rob,  jr.,  M.  D." 

690.  Some  common  abbreviations,  with  the  meaning 
of  which  every  one  should  be  familiar,  are  now  pre- 
sented. 

COMMON   ABBREVIATIONS. 

Id.,  idem^  the  same. 
I.  e.,  id  City  that  is. 
I.  H.  S.,  Jems  hominum  salvator^ 
Jesus  Saviour  of  men. 


before 


A.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Arts. 
A.  C,    ante     Chrittum^ 

Christ. 
A.M.,  Master  of  Arts. 

A.  M.,  ante  meridiem^  morning 

B.  C,  before  Christ. 
Co.,  County,  Company. 

Cor.   Sec,  Corresponding  Secre- 
tary. 
D.  D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
Do.,  ditto,  the  same. 

D.  v.,  deo  volente,  God  willing. 

E.  E.,  errors  excepted. 
£.sq..  Esquire, 

F.  R.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Soci- 
ety. 

Hon.,  Honorable. 


Inst.,  instant,  of  this  month. 

LL.  D.,  Legum  Doctor y  Doctor  of 

Laws. 
M.  C,  Member  of  Congreaa 
M.  D.,  Doctor  of  Medicine. 
Mem.,  memorandum. 
Messrs.,  nuMieurSy  gentlemen. 
M.  P.,  Member  of  PoUce. 
Mr.,  Mister. 
Mrs.,  Mistress. 
MS.,  manuscript. 
N.  B.,  nota  bene^  mark  welL 
P.  M.,  Postmaster. 


Mtnieolonf    Whyf    Oiv«  an  azamplai    688.  What  direettona  art  ^fifwk 

uatlng,  wben  a  period  !■  UMd  aAer  an  abbreviation  t    Wbat  i«  said  of  a 

'<?o(ttng  with  an  abbrevlmtion  t    600.  What  point  follows  Moh  abbr«vla> 

mtheUatl    WhyUth«r»iiop«rfodbetw««athetwor«inXX.i>.l 


262  COMMON   ABBREVIATIONS. 


P.  M.,  post  meridiem,  evening. 

P.  0.,  Post  Office. 

Pro  tern.,  pro  tempore,  for  the  time. 

Prox.,  proximo,  of  next  month. 

P.  S.,  Postscript. 

Qy.,  Query. 

Rec.  Sec,  Recording  Secretary. 

Rev.,  Reverend. 


R.  R.,  Railroad. 

Sec,  Secretary. 

St.,  Saint,  street. 

Ult.,  ultimo,  of  last  month. 

U.  S.  A.,  United  States  of  Amerie^ 

U.  S.  A.,  United  States  Army. 

U.  S.  N.,  United  States  Navy. 

Viz.,  videlicet,  namely. 


691.  The  Intekrogation-point. — An  interrogation- 
point  must  be  placed  after  every  interrogative  sentence, 
member,  and  clause ;  also,  after  the  interjections  eh 
and  hey,  implying  a  question.  "  Has  air  weight  ? " 
"  Air  has  weight ;  do  you  not  believe  it  ?  "  "  You 
thought  it  would  rain,  hey  ?  " 

692.  The  Exclamation-point. — An  exclamation-point 
must  be  placed  after  every  exclamatory  sentence,  mem- 
ber, clause,  and  expression ;  as,  "  How  disgusting  is 
vice !  "  "  Life  is  short ;  how  careful  we  should  be  to 
use  it  aright !  "     "  For  shame  !  " 

An  exclamation-point  must  also  be  placed  after 
every  interjection  except  O,  eh,  and  hey,  unless  very 
closely  connected  with  other  words ;  as,  "  Ah !  who 
could  have  foreseen  it  ?  "     "  Pshaw  !  you  are  trifling." 

EXERCISE. 

Introduce  the  period,  interrogation-point,  exclamation-point, 
and  capitals,  where  they  are  needed : — The  good  are  better  made 
by  ill — We  have  received  good,  and  shall  we  not  receive  evil — 
His  last  words  (ah  how  well  I  remember  them)  were,  "My  son, 
beware  of  the  first  advances  of  sin  " — What  singular  traditions 
the  Laplanders  have  — They  asked  Galileo  whether  he  would  re^ 
nounce  his  doctrines  (§  473) — They  asked  Galileo,  "  will  you  re- 
Bounce  your  doctrines  " — Aim  at  perfection  afl9iction  is  a  school 


691.  Where  must  an  interrogation-point  be  placed  ?  692.  Where  must  an  exclama- 
tion-point be  placed  1  After  what  part  of  speech  moBt  aa  ezclamation-poiut  nli«o 
be  used  t 


ooLOK.  263 

of  virtue  how  silly  are  many  of  the  forma  of  etiquette  where 
was  Homer  bom  many  a  man  addresses  another  as  mr  or  esq, 
according  as  he  dresses  ill  or  well — Wm  A  Stevens  A  M  Prea^ 
The  wind  is  N  E 


LESSON   XCIV. 

PUNCTUATION  (CONTINUED) 

693.  The  Colon. — Tlie  colon  indicates  the  next 
greatest  degree  of  separation  to  that  denoted  by  the 
period. 

694.  A  colon  must  be  placed  between  the  great  di- 
visions of  sentences,  when  minor  divisions  occur  that 
are  separated  by  semicolons ;  as,  "  Man  has  effected 
wonders  ;  he  is  every  day  advancing  in  knowledge  and 
power  :  yet,  surpassed  by  nature  even  in  her  humblest 
efforts,  he  can  not  so  much  as  make  a  blade  of  grass." 

A  colon  must  also  be  placed  before  a  formal  enu- 
meration of  particulars,  or  a  direct  quotation,  referred 
to  by  the  words  th\is^  following^  as  follows^  this,  these^ 
&c.  "Tliere  is  much  justice  in  this  warning  of  Lava- 
ter :  *  Beware  of  him  who  hates  the  laugh  of  a  child.'  " 

A  formal  enumeration  is  one  in  which  the  words  ^r«<,  neeondly^  &c, 
or  similar  tenns,  are  introduced.  These  words  are  set  off  with  the  comma, 
the  particulars  are  separated  by  the  semicolon,  and  before  the  whole  enu' 
mcraiion  a  colon  must  be  placed.  Thus :  "  There  were  four  great  empires 
in  ancient  times:  first,  the  Assyrian;  second,  the  Persian;  third,  Um 
Macedonian  ;  and  fourth,  the  Roman." 

695.  The  Semicolon. — ^The  semicolon  indicates  the 
next  greatest  degree  of  separation  to  that  denoted  by 
the  colon. 

aOQ.  Wb»t  degree  of  »pAratlon  doe*  the  colon  Indicate  t  004.  Give  the  rale 
relating  to  the  nae  of  the  eoloo  between  the  great  diviaiona  of  aeotenoee.  Give  the 
role  relating  to  a  formal  enmneraUon  of  partiealara.  What  la  meant  bj  %  formal 
eoumeraUon  t    Md.   What  degree  of  M^paratioo  doe*  the  eemUiokm  iadieatea 


264  THE   SEMICOLON. 

696.  Mule  I, — A  semicolon  must  be  placed  between 
the  members  of  compound  sentences,  unless  the  connec- 
tion is  exceedingly  close  ;  as  "  The  wheel  of  fortune  is 
ever  turning ;  who  can  say,  *  I  shall  be  uppermost  to- 
morrow '  ? " 

If  the  members  are  very  short,  and  the  connection  is  close,  the  comma 
may  be  used  in  stead  of  the  semicolon  ;  as,  "  Man  proposes,  but  God  dis- 


697.  Hule  II. — A  semicolon  must  be  placed  be- 
tween the  great  divisions  of  sentences,  when  minor 
divisions  occur  that  are  separated  by  commas ;  as, 
"  Plato  called  beauty  a  privilege  of  nature  ;  Theocritus, 
a  delightful  prejudice." 

698.  Rule  III. — A  semicolon  must  be  placed  before 
an  enumeration  of  particulars,  w4ien  the  names  of  the 
objects  merely  are  given,  without  any  formal  introduc- 
tory words ;  as,  "  There  are  three  cases ;  the  nomina- 
tive, the  possessive,  and  the  objective." 

699.  Rule  IV. — A  semicolon  must  be  placed  before 
as,  when  it  introduces  an  example ;  as  at  the  close  of 
the  last  paragraph. 

EXERCISE. 

Insert  all  the  points  thus  far  treated,  where  they  are  required  : 
— Five  great  enemies  to  our  peace  are  constantly  harassing  us 
avarice,  ambition,  envy,  anger,  and  pride  —  Books  are  our  best 
fiiends  they  are  ever  ready  with  cheerful  words  yet  how  many 
there  are  that  never  have  recourse  to  their  friendly  sympathy — 
Seneca  sums  up  the  matter  thus  "  I  would  rather  never  receive 
a  kindness  than  never  bestow  one  " — Labor  not  to  be  rich  cease 
from  thine  own  wisdom  — A  good  book,  in  the  language  of  the 

696.  Recite  Rule  I.  for  the  use  of  the  Bemicolon,  relating  to  compound  sentences. 
When  may  the  comma  be  used  in  stead  of  the  semicolon  ?  697.  Recite  Rule  II., 
relating  to  the  great  divisions  of  sentences.  698.  Recite  Rule  III.,  relating  to  ao 
enxmieration  of  particulars.    699.  Recite  Rule  IV.,  relating  to  examples. 


V 


THE   OOUMA.  265 

booksollers,  is  a  salable  one  in  that  of  the  curiouR,  a  scarce  one 
in  that  of  men  of  sense,  a  useful  one — There  are  tiiree  sufe  guides 
lo  eternity  first  a  sound  head  secondly  an  honest  heart  thirdly  an 
humble  spirit — The  spirit  of  a  niun  will  sustain  his  infirmity  but 
a  wounded  spirit  who  can  bear 


LESSON   XCV. 

PUNCTUATION    (CONTINUED). 

700.  The  Comma. — ^The  comma  indicates  the  least 
degree  of  separation  denoted  by  any  point. 

701.  Bule  I. — Adjuncts  and  clauses,  not  essential 
to  the  meaning  of  a  sentence,  or  modifying  the  whole 
proposition,  are  set  off  with  a  comma  on  each  side, 
when  introduced  between  a  subject  and  its  verb,  or 
other  parts  that  are  closely  connected. 

At  the  commencement  or  end  of  a  sentence,  such 
adjuncts  and  clauses  are  set  off  with  a  comma  after  or 
before  them,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Examples. — The  bones  of  birds,  in  a  word,  combine  strength  with 
lightness,  in  a  remarkable  degree. — Blankets,  which  derived  their  name 
from  Thomas  Blanquet,  were  introduced  into  England  in  1S40. — By  the 
way,  gunpowder  was  first  known  to  the  Chinese. — No  one  can  be  an  atheist, 
If  he  will  only  examine  hia  own  structure. 

702.  Subjects  introduced  by  as  toell  as,  and  not,  Ac,  fall  under  this 
rule ;  as,  *'  Toledo,  as  well  as  Damascus,  was  noted  for  its  sword-blades.'* 

708.  Single  wordii  relating  to  a  whole  proposition,  and  all  vocative  ex- 
pressions, are  also  set  off  with  the  comma.  "  Galileo,  accordingly,  was 
Imprisoned.**    "  Smile,  0  Fortune,  smile  on  our  attempt** 

704.  No  comma  must  be  placed  between  restrictive  adjuncts  or  clausra 
and  that  which  they  restrict ;  as,  "  All  must  pay  the  debt  of  nature.** 
■*  All  that  glittern^  is  not  gold." 


too.  What  dogroe  of  •eparatlon  doe«  the  oomma  Indlcat*  I  701.  R«oit4»  RoIm 
I.  fbr  the  OM  of  the  oomma,  relatint?  to  adjaneta  and  cIhomm.  At  the  oommcnee. 
mcnt  or  end  of  a  Motenoe,  how  are  such  adjaneta  and  cIausm  punctaated  t  Give 
example*.  702.  What  anbJecU  fall  ander  thia  rule  t  703.  What  alngle  word*  are 
"Uao  Mt  off  with  the  oomma  f  701  What  ia  the  principle  relatinR  to  reatriottre 
19 


266  RULES   FOB  THE   U6E 

705.  I^ule  II. — A  noun  in  apposition,  modified  by 
an  adjunct  or  adjective,  is  generally,  with  its  modifiers, 
set  off  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt, 
was  defeated  by  Octavius." 

706.  Rule  III, — A  comma  must  be  placed  after  the 
logical  subject  (§  108)  of  a  sentence,  when  it  ends  with 
a  verb,  or  consists  of  several  parts  which  are  them- 
selves separated  by  the  comma  ;  as,  "  All  that  glitters, 
is  not  gold."  "  Envy,  anger,  and  pride,  are  our  worst 
enemies." 

707.  Bule  IVo — A  comma  must  be  placed  between 
short  members  of  compound  sentences,  connected  by 
and^  hut,  or,  nor,  for,  because,  whereas,  and  other 
conjunctions ;  as,  "  Beauty  dazzles,  but  amiability 
charms." 

A  comma  must  also  be  placed  before  a  conjunction  connecting  the  parts 
of  a  compound  predicate,  unless  they  are  very  short  and  so  closely  con- 
nected that  no  point  is  admissible ;  as,  "  The  sun  shines  on  all,  even  the 
wicked  and  ungratefuL" 

708.  Rule  V. — A  comma  must  be  placed  before  or 
introducing  an  equivalent,  or  a  clause  defining  the 
writer's  meaning  ;  as,  "  Spelter,  or  zinc,  comes  chiefly 
from  Germany." 

709.  Rule  VI. — A  comma  must  be  placed  before 
and,  or,  and  nor,  preceding  the  last  of  a  series  of 
clauses,  or  words  that  are  the  same  part  of  speech  and 
in  the  same  constniction  ;  as,  "  Sunshine,  cloud,  and 
storm,  all  are  sent  for  some  wise  purpose." 

710.  Bule  VII. — When,  to  avoid  repetition,  and. 


adiuncts  and  clauses?  705.  Recite  Rule  II.,  relating  to  nouns  in  apposition. 
70C.  Recite  Rule  III.,  relating  to  the  logical  subject  of  a  sentence.  707.  Recite 
Rule  IV.,  relating  to  short  members  of  compound  sentences.  What  is  the  rule 
-elating  to  a  compound  predicate  ?  708.  Recite  Rule  V,,  relating  to  or.  709.  Re- 
Oite  Rule  VI.,  relating  to  and,  or,  and  nar.    710.  Recite  Rule  VII.,  relating  to  tho 


OP  THE   COMMA.  267 

OT^  nor,  or  a  verb  previously  used,  is  omitted,  a  comma 
takes  its  place. 

**  Tin  is  found  In  England,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Malacca,  and  Banca." 
In  stead  of  saying  England  and  Bohemia  and  S&xony  and  Malacca,  to  avoid 
n>petition  we  omit  and^  and  a  comma  takes  its  place.  "  Mcthusaleh  was 
the  oldest  man ;  Samson,  the  stroi^est.''  Was  is  omitted  after  Samson^ 
%ud  a  comma  takes  its  place. 

Til.  liule  VIII, — Words  used  in  pairs  take  a  com- 
ma alYer  each  pair.  "  Joy  and  sorrow,  cloud  and  sun- 
fihiiie,  are  alike  sent  for  our  benefit." 

712.  Rule  IX. — Words  repeated  for  the  sake  of  em- 
phasis must  be  set  off  with  their  adjuncts,  if  they  have 
any,  by  the  comma.  "  Truth,  truth,  and  nothing  but 
truth,  will  satisfy  the  candid  inquirer." 

EXERCISE. 

Inurt  the  paints  thus  far  treated: — Be  temperate  temperate 
I  say  that  you  may  avoid  disease — Fashion  for  the  most  part  is 
nothing  but  the  ostentation  of  riches — Where  if  I  may  ask  are 
the  modesty  and  self-restraint  the  industry  and  honesty  of  our 
ancestors — Born  four  years  after  the  crucifixion  of  Christ  Jose- 
j)hus  lived  to  witness  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem — By  the  Per- 
sian the  Turk  and  the  Arab  carpets  are  ranked  among  the 
necessaries  of  life  They  form  with  his  cushions  and  divan  all  hia 
furniture  his  seat  his  bed  his  table  He  must  have  his  prayer- 
ciirpot  spread  out  on  which  to  kneel  at  the  appointed  hour  he 
must  have  his  smoking-carpet  on  which  to  recline  and  dream 
away  his  time  there  must  be  a  carpet  for  tent  and  harem  bazaar 
and  mosque 

As  darkness  begins  bats  issue  from  the  fissures  of  walls  and 
other  hiding-places  where  they  have  sought  shelter  during  the 
diy  and  by  their  active  flight  capture  such  insects  as  are  then  on 
the  wing  gnats  musqnitoes  moths  beetles  &c  The  service  which 
they  thus  render  is  very  considerable  particularly  in  tropical 
regions  where  tliey  swarm  by  myriads 

omiMioo  of  a  oonjnnetion  or  verb.    TIL  R«c4e  Rule  VITI.,r6latlnf  to  word«  iia*d 
U)  pnlra.    71S.  R«ciU  Role  IX.,  rcUting  to  word*  repeated. 


268  THE   DASH. — PARENTHESES. 

LESSON  XCVI. 

PUNCTUATION    (CONTINUED). 

Y13.  The  Dash. — The  dasli  is  used  to  denote, 

I.  A  break  in  the  construction.  "  Glory — what 
is  it?" 

II.  A  transition  in  the  sentiment  from  grave  to 
humorous.  "  London  is  noted  for  its  magnificent 
buildings,  its  extensive  shipping,  and — its  dexterous 
pickpockets." 

III.  A  sudden  interruption.  "  You  know  mj  feel- 
ings ;  you  know —  "    "  Hold  !  "  interrupted  my  friend. 

lY.  Hesitation.  "  Such  a  man  is  a — a — I  know  not 
what  to  call  him." 

Y.  An  abrupt  or  exclamatory  repetition.  "  Such 
was  the  testimony  of  Solomon — Solomon,  who  had  all 
the  pleasures  of  the  world  at  his  command." 

714.  A  dash  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  omission  of  letters,  figures, 
or  words ;  as,  "In  the  year  18 — ,  I  stopped  over  night  at  the  village  of 
G— ." 

715.  A  dash  after  other  points  makes  them  indicate  a  greater  degree 
of  separation  than  they  generally  denote. 

Y16.  Parentheses. — Marks  of  parenthesis  are  used 
to  enclose  words  which  explain,  modify,  or  add  to  the 
main  proposition,  when  so  introduced  as  to  break  the 
connection  between  dependent  parts  and  interfere  with 
the  harmonious  flow.  "Tlie  Saxons  (for  they  de- 
scended from  the  ancient  Sacse)  retained  for  centuries 
the  energy  and  morality  of  their  ancestors." 

TIT.  Bkackets. — Brackets  are  used  principally  in 

713.  For  what  five  purposes  is  the  dash  used  ?  714.  What  else  is  the  dash  used 
to  denote?  715.  What  is  the  efiect  of  the  dash  after  other  points?  716.  For  what 
are  marks  of  parenthesis  used  ?  717.  Where  and  for  what  are  brackets  prinoipallj 
Dsed? 


EXEBCI8E   IN   PUNCTUATION.  IK/.) 

qnoted  passages,  to  enclose  words  improperly  omitted, 
or  added  by  way  of  correction,  observation,  oi  explana- 
tion.    "  She  is  weary  with  [of]  life." 

EXERCISE. 

Punctuate  the  folloiting  ientencee : — He  who  plays  the  tymn 
in  his  own  family  is  a  a  a  what  term  can  I  find  strong  enough  t«. 
express  my  contempt — Archimedes  the  great  Sicilian  philosopher 
and  what  ancient  philosopher  ranks  higher  was  ignorant  of  some 
things  that  are  now  known  to  every  intelligent  school-hoy — 
Phonography  and  under  this  head  we  includo  every  method  of 
writing  by  signs  that  represent  the  sounds  of  language  is  a 
great  imi)rovement  on  stenography — What  are  they  all  worth 
the  triumphs  and  honors  of  the  world — This  was  the  state  of 
tilings  in  Rome  Rome  the  queen-city  of  the  world — "  They  rise 
successive  should  the  author  not  have  said  weeesnvely  and  succes- 
sive fall " 

The  Romans  were  at  war  with  the  Persians  and  their  supply 
of  silk  from  this  source  being  cut  off  they  sought  unsuccessfully 
to  obtain  it  through  other  channels  About  this  time  two  monks 
who  had  penetrated  to  China  returned  to  Constantinople  bring- 
ing with  them  the  news  that  this  wonderful  aerievm  for  such  was 
the  Latin  name  of  silk  was  the  produce  of  a  little  worm  which 
changed  into  a  moth  they  had  observed  many  of  the  processes 
by  which  it  was  prepared  for  use  Tlie  Roman  emperor  offered 
them  greai:  rewards  to  return  and  procure  some  of  the  eggs  of 
this  wonderful  worm  which  they  did  at  the  hazard  of  their  lives 
652  A  D  and  the  few  eggs  which  they  brought  concealed  in  a  hol- 
low stick  were  the  stock  from  which  all  the  silk-worms  since 
reared  in  Eorope  have  descended 


LESSON  XCVII. 

APOBTROPnE.-HYrnEN.-QUOTATIOK. POINTS. 

718.  Besides  the  piinctiiation-points,  the  following 
marks  are  used  in  written  and  printed  matter:   the 

TU.  Whal  marks  beddcs  the  panotuation-poiiiU  are  naed  In  writtea  and 


270         APOSTROPHE. — HYPHEN. QU0TATI0N-P0INT8- 

Apostrophe  ( ' ),  the  Hyphen  {  - ),  and  Quotation-pointa 

("  ")• 

719.  The  Apostrophe. — The  apostrophe  denotes  the 
omission  of  a  letter  or  letters,  and  the  possessive  case 
of  nouns. 

Examples. — ^7ls  for  it  is  ;  e'en  for  even  ;  don't  for  do  not ;  tho'  for 
though ;  o'clock  for  on  [the]  clock.  So,  in  the  possessive  :  herd's^  Charles's^ 
men's,  children's,  heroes'.  But  remember  that  the  personal  pronouns  never 
take  the  apostrophe  in  the  possessive  case  :  ours,  yours,  hers,  theirs. 

720.  The  Hyphen. — ^The  hyphen  is  used  to  connect 
the  elements  of  a  compound  word,  when  each  retains 
its  own  accent ;  as,  castle-builder,  father-in-law,  red- 
hot,  law-abiding,  inside-out. 

The  hyphen  is  also  used  after  a  complete  syllable  at 
the  end  of  a  line,  to  connect  the  parts  of  a  divided 
word.  Tlie  hyphen  may  also  be  used  in  stead  of  the 
diseresis,  to  denote  that  the  final  vowel  of  a  prefix  does 
not  form  a  diphthong  with  the  first  vowel  of  a  primi- 
tive ;  as,  pre-engagement,  re-establish, 

721.  Quotation-points. — Quotation-points  are  used 
to  enclose  words  quoted  from  an  author  or  speaker,  or 
represented  in  narrative  as  employed  in  dialogue ;  as, 
"Remember  now  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy 
youth." 

T22.  When  the  substance  merely  is  given,  and  not  the  exact  words, 
quotation-points  are  unnecessary. 

723.  Matter  within  quotation-points  is  to  be  punctuated  just  as  if  it 
Btood  in  any  other  position. 

724.  When  quotation-points  are  needed  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  they 
come  after  whatever  other  point  is  required  there,  if  this  point  applies  to 


printed  matter?  719.  What  does  the  apoatrophe  denote?  Give  examples 
720.  For  what  is  the  hyphen  nsed  ?  For  what  is  it  used  at  the  end  of  a  line  ?  For 
what  purpose  ia  it  used  In  stead  of  the  diseresiB?  721.  What  are  quotation-points 
used  to  enclose  ?  722.  When  are  quotation-points  unnecessary  ?  723.  How  is  matter 
Within  quotation-i)ointB  to  be  punctuated  t    724.  How  are  quotation- points  to  tttaiid, 


EXERCISE   IN    PUNCTUATION.  271 

die  quotation  alone,  but  before  this  point,  if  it  applies  to  the  whole  sen- 
tence and  not  exclusively  to  tlie  quotation ;  as,  Pilate  usked,  ^*  What  is 
truth  *  "    Where  now  is  the  "  man  of  destiny  "  ♦ 

725.  A  quotation  within  a  passage  that  is  itself  quoted,  is  enclosed  be- 
tween Single  Quotation-points  (*  ') ;  as,  "  I  would  remind  you  that  Youna 
calls  man  an  *  insect  infinite '." 

EXERCISE. 

PunetuaUj  and  insert  the  apostrophe^  the  hyphen,  and  quota- 
tion-pointSj  where  they  are  required : — The  following  ever  to  be 
remembered  couplet  is  from  Popes  Moral  Essays 
Tis  education  forms  the  common  mind 
Just  as  tlie  twig  is  bent  tiie  trees  inclined 
Now  continued  the  cavalier  lets  seek  this  fair  groves  friendly 
shelter  and  mid  its  cool  retreats  enjoy  that  friendship  which  ac- 
cording to  the  poet  is  a  heavn  in  epitome — Now  there  11  be  no 
delay  een  tho  they  meet  a  stitif  souwester — Temptations  says  Feno- 
lon  are  files  that  rub  off  much  of  our  self  confidence — Very  forcibly 
says  the  poet 

Uow  poor  how  rich  how  abject  how  august 
How  complicate  how  wonderful  is  man 
At  twenty  three  he  was  a  hare  brained  youth  who  d  brook  no 
counsel — I  d  rather  wait  than  go  thro  such  a  rain — The  aveng- 
ing power  belongs  to  one  alone 


LESSON   XCYIII. 

FIGURES    OF    ETYMOLOGY. —  FIGURES    OF    SYNTAX. 

726.  Observe  the  following  sentence : — 

" '  Neath  a  tyrant's  yoke  the  people  languish.'^ 
This  sentence  in  plain  language  and  according  to  the  ordinary  mode 
jf  expression  would  read  thus :  "  The  people  languish  beneath  a  tyrant's 
aower."     Three  things  are  to  be  noticed  :   1.  In  the  original  sentence,  tho 

relatively  to  other  point*  at  the  end  of  a  aentenoe  t    725.  Wlien  are  tingle  quota* 
tlonpuint*  to  b«  lued  t 

TM.  Repeat  the  MnteooapreMiited  at  tbdeofminenoement  of  the  leMon.  What 
thr«t>  thing!  are  to  b«  noticed  in  oonneotioa  with  it  t    What  are  such  ohai^(oa 


272  FIGURES. 

word  ^neath  is  used  for  the  ordinary  form  beneath.  2.  The  natural  order 
of  the  words  is  changed.  3.  The  word  yoke  is  used,  not  in  its  ordinary 
signification,  a  wooden  fi-ame  by  which  two  oxen  are  connected  for  draw- 
ing, but  in  the  sense  of  power  tyrannically  exerted.  We  see  then  tliat 
changes  may  be  made  in  the  form,  construction,  and  application  of  worda. 
Such  changes  are  called  Figures. 

727.  A  Figure  is  a  mode  of  expression  in  wliich  the 
ordinary  form,  construction,  or  application  of  words  is 
changed. 

728.  Figures  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : — 

1.  Those  in  which  the  ordinary  form  of  words  is 
changed,  called  Figures  of  Etymology. 

2.  Those  in  which  the  ordinary  construction  of 
words  is  changed,  called  Figures  of  Syntax. 

3.  Those  in  which  the  ordinary  application  of  words 
is  changed,  called  Figures  of  Khetoric. 

729.  Figures  of  Etymology. — Tlie  most  important 
figures  of  etymology  are  as  follows :  A-phser'-e-sis, 
Pros'-the-sis,  Syn'-co-pe,  A-poc'-o-pe,  Par-a-go'-ge,  and 
Tme'-sis. 

Aphseresis  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  letters  from 
the  beginning  of  a  word ;  as,  ^twixt  for  hetwixt. 

Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  a  letter  or  letters  to  a 
word  ;  as,  hedaub  for  dauh^  yhent  for  hent. 

Syncope  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  letters  from  the 
middle  of  a  word  ;  as,  giv^n  for  given. 

Apocope  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  letters  at  the 
end  of  a  word  ;  as,  ^'  W  midst,  for  in  the  midst. 

Paragoge  is  the  annexing  of  a  letter  or  letters  to  a 
;«^ord  ;  as,  steejpy  for  steejp. 

Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  the  elements  of  a  com 

called?  727.  What  is  a  Figure ?  728.  How  may  figures  be  divided?  Define  and 
name  these  three  clasfies.  729.  Mention  the  most  important  figures  of  etymology. 
Define  AphaBresis.    Define  Prosihesis.    Define  Syncope.    Define  Apocope.    D©* 


FIQURES.  273 

pound  by  some  intervening  word  or  words ;  as,  whose 
sins  soever  for  whoscaoever  sins^  the  live  dmj  long  for 
the  livelotig  day, 

730.  Figures  of  Si-ntax. — Tlie  most  important 
figures  of  syntax  are  as  follows : — El-lip'-sis,  Ple'-o 
nasni,  Syl-lep'-sis,  and  Ily-per'-ba-ton. 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word  or  words,  neces- 
sary to  the  complete  construction  of  a  sentence,  but  not 
essential  to  its  meaning.  Kumerous  examples  of  this 
figure  were  presented  in  Lesson  LXVUI. 

Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  words  not  necessary  to  the  con- 
struction ;  as,  "  lie  that  cometh,  let  him  come  quickly," 
— for  "  Let  him  that  cometh,  come  quickly."^Super- 
fluous  words  generally  weaken  the  style.  Pleonasm 
should  be  sparingly  used,  and  only  when  it  is  naturally 
introduced  under  the  influence  of  strong  emotion. 

Syllepsis  is  the  construing  of  words  according  to  the 
meaning  they  convey,  and  not  by  the  strict  require- 
ments of  grammatical  rules. 

**  Philip  went  down  to  the  city  of  Samaria,  and  preached  Christ  unto 
them^  In  this  example,  city  is  in  the  third,  singular ;  and,  according  to 
§  665,  thein  should  be  it.  By  the  city^  however,  is  meant  the  people  in 
the  city,  and  the  pronoun  referring  to  it  may  therefore,  by  syllepsis,  be  put 
in  the  plural. 

We  have  numerous  examples  of  syllepsis  in  masculine  and  feminine 
pronouns  used  with  reference  to  inanimate  objects  personified ;  as,  "Night 
spread  her  mantle  o'er  the  earth." 

Ilyperbaton  is  a  deviation  from  the  natural  ar- 
rangement of  words ;  as,  Thee  I  revisit  for  /  revisit 
ihee. 

fln«  Purngoge.  Define  Tmesis.  73a  Mention  the  moat  important  fl|rare«  of  syn* 
tax.    Define  Ellipsis.    Define  Plcontuim.    What  is  generally  the  efltet  of  super- 

flnous  wordst    What  In  said  ret>pecting  the  useof  plm '    T*  *'■     '^vliopsls. 

Give  an  example  of  this  figure.     In  what  have  we  nun  -\  Hep- 

slat     Define  Ilyperbaton.     Of  what  is  hyperbaton   a  ,   lealurol 

What  is  lU  eflbet,  when  Jadloioosly  tued  t    To  what  is  it  liable  to  ImuI  i 

12* 


274  FIGUKES. 

Thia  figure  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  features  of  poetry.  Judicionsly 
used,  it  imparts  variety  aud  strength  to  composition ;  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  it  does  not  lead  to  obscurity. 

EXERCISE. 

Point  out  tJie  figures  of  etymology  and  the  figures  of  syntax^ 
that  occur  in  the  following  sentences : — Israel  pitched  their  tents 
in  the  desert. — Redemption  !  'twas  the  favor  of  the  skies. — Each 
in  other's  countenance  read  his  own  dismay — Far  adown  the 
vasty  gulf  plunged  the  archangel. — Such  is  their  love  to  us  ward. 
— 'Gainst  him  discharge  thy  shafts  entipped  with  flame. — Sweet 
Evening — ^how  she  fans  our  cheek  with  her  cool  breath ! — Oft  with 
th'  enchantress  of  his  soul  he  talks. 

"  Fashion,  leader  of  a  chatt'ring  train, 
Whom  man  for  his  own  hurt  permits  to  reign, 
Who  shifts  and  changes  all  things  but  his  shape, 
And  would  degrade  her  vot'ry  to  an  ape, 
The  fruitful  parent  of  abuse  and  wrong, 
Holds  a  usurp'd  dominion  o'er  his  tongue ; 
There  sits  aud  prompts  him  with  his  own  disgrace, 
Prescribes  the  theme,  the  tone,  and  the  grimace. 
And,  when  accomplished  in  her  wayward  school, 
Calls  gentleman  whom  she  has  made  a  fooL" 


LESSON  XCIX. 

FIGURES      OF      RHETORIC. 

731.  The  most  important  figures  of  rhetoric  are  as 
follows: — Sim'-i-le,  Met'-a-phor,  Ar-le-go-ry,  Me-ton'- 
y-my,  Sy-nec'-do-che,  Hy-per'-bo-le,  Yi'-sion,  Per-son-i- 
fi-ca'-tion,  An-tith'-e-sis,-  Cli'-max,  I'-ro-ny,  and  A-poph'- 
a-sis. 

732.  Simile  is  the  direct  comparison  of  one  object 
to  another,  and  is  generally  denoted  by  liJce,  as,  or  so, 

73L  Mention  the  most  important  fignree  of  rhetoric.  732.  Define  Simile. 
How  la  the  compariBon  Bometimea  made  ?    For  what  purposea  are  aimileB  usedJ 


FIGURES.  275 

"Laws  aro  like  cobwebs,  which  catch  Biniill   flic!*,  but 
let  wasps  and  hornets  through." 

Sometimes  the  comparison  is  made  without  any  formal  term  to  denote 
it  Thua :  "  Adversity  brings  to  ligiit  the  merit  in  a  man  ;  a  gem  is  lus- 
treless till  it  is  rubbed  and  polished."  Here  we  have  a  good  simile,  though 
neither  /lAe,  aj«,  nor  »o  appears. — Similes  are  used  either  to  explain  the 
meaning  or  embellish  the  style. 

733.  Metaphor  is  the  implying  of  a  resemblance  be- 
tween two  objects,  not  by  any  term  denoting  similitude, 
but  by  assigning  to  one  the  name,  attribute,  or  action 
of  the  other ;  as,  "  Flattery  is  a  sort  of  bad  money,  to 
which  our  vanity  gives  currency." 

Metaphor  is  the  commonest  of  all  figures.  It  appears  in  various  forms, 
eometimcs  in  a  single  word.  We  use  metaphorical  language,  when  we 
speak  of  a  hard  heart,  a  cold  reception,  bright  hopes,  fancies  gambol- 
ling unbridled  through  the  bi-ain,  pleasures  streuxd  over  the  high  wag  of 
life,  &c. 

734.  Allegory  is  a  combination  of  kindred  meta- 
phors, forming  a  kind  of  story,  whereby  it  is  sought  to 
teach  some  important  truth. 

Moet  of  the  parables  of  Scripture  are  forms  of  this  figure.  Sometimes 
an  allegory  is  so  extended  as  to  fill  a  volume  ;  as  in  the  case  of  Bunyan's 
*'  Pilgrim's  Progress  ". 

735.  Metonymy  is  calling  one  object  by  the  name 
of  another  that  sustains  some  relation  to  it.  The  prin- 
cipal relations  on  which  this  figure  is  founded,  are  as 
follows : — 

1.  Cause  and  effect;  as,  "Extravagance  is  the  ruin  of  many,"— that 
is,  the  cause  of  ruin. 

2.  Ancestor  and  descendants ;  as,  "  Then  shall  Judah  triumph,** — that 
!a,  the  de$eendant9  of  Judah. 

8.  Attribute  and  that  to  which  it  belongs;  as,  "  Pride  shall  be  brought 
low,** — that  is,  the  proud. 

73S.  Drflne  Metiiphor.  A*  regmrda  frequency  of  u«e,  how  <Ioo«  metMphor  cora- 
pnre  with  other  BgurMt  Give  ezAmpIee  of  common  motephorlcal  expreMlona 
J94.  Define  Allegory.    What  examples  of  allegory  are  alluded  to  t    7U.  Deflna 


276  FIGUltES. 

4.  Container  and  thing  contained;  as,  "Jerusalem  shall  rejoice,"— » 
that  is,  the  people  of  Jerusalem. 

5.  Emblem  and  thing  represented;  as,  "This  was  offensive  to  the 
crown" — that  is,  the  king. 

6.  Material  and  thing  made  of  it ;  as,  "  Gold  is  all-powerful," — tuat  is, 
tnoney. 

Y36.  Synecdoclie  is  iising  the  name  of  a  part  for  that 
of  the  whole,  the  name  of  the  whole  for  that  of  a  part, 
or  a  definite  number  for  an  indefinite ;  as,  "  My  roof 
is  at  your  service," — that  is,  my  house,  "  His  head  is 
grey," — that  is,  his  hair,  "  A  hundred  bwords  leaped 
from  their  scabbards," — that  is,  a  great  number, 

737.  Hyperbole  is  the  exaggerating  of  an  attribute, 
or  the  assigning  to  a  subject  of  some  impossible  act; 
as,  "  Her  brow  was  as  white  as  snowJ^  "  So  bright 
their  arms  that  the  sun  himself  started  with  sudden 
fright." 

738.  Yision  is  the  representing  of  past  events  as 
now  going  on,  or  what  is  merely  imagined  as  actually 
Been ;  as, 

"  Lo !  anointed  by  Heaven  with  the  vials  of  wrath, 
Behold  where  he  flies  on  his  desolate  path  ! 
Now  in  darkness  and  billows  lie  sweeps  from  my  sight; 
Rise,  rise,  ye  wild  tempests,  and  cover  his  flight ! " 

739.  Personification  is  the  attributing  of  sex  or  life 
to  an  inanimate  object,  or  intelligence  to  an  inferior 
creature  ;  as,  "  Then  the  hutterfly  spolce,  with  a  glance? 
of  disdain." 

740.  Antithesis  is  the  contrasting  of  opposites,  to 
heighten  their  effect ;  as,  "  Hatred  stirreth  up  strife ; 
but  love  covereth  all  sins." 

741.  Climax    is    such   an    arrangement  of   words. 

Metonymy.    Mention  the  principal  relations  on  which  metonymy  is  founded,  and 
jjive  an  examplfr  of  each.    736.  Define  Synecdoche.    737.  Define  Hyperbole.    73& 


FIGURES.  277 

clauses,  members,  or  sentences,  that  tlie  weakest  may 
stand  lirst,  and  that  each  in  tuni,  rising  in  imi)ortance, 
may  make  a  deeper  impression  on  the  mind  than  the 
one  before  it ;  as,  "  Tlien  Virtue  hecmne  silent^  lieart- 
sicky  pined  away^  and  dled^ 

742.  Irony  is  the  asserting  of  directly  the  opposite 
of  what  we  wish  to  be  nnderstood ;  as  when  I  say, 
"  Go  on  ;  time  is  worth  nothing^'' — meaning  that  it  is 
very  valuable. 

743.  Apophasis  is  the  pretended  suppression  of  what 
one  is  all  the  time  actually  mentioning ;  as,  '"'' I  shall 
say  nothing  of  the  immorality  prevalent  in  Paris — im- 
morality which  is  all  the  more  dangerous,  because  ar- 
rayed in  the  most  attractive  garbs." 

EXEBCISB. 

Point  out  the  figures,  ichether  of  etymology^  syntax,!  ^  rhetoric: 
— A3  cold  waters  to  a  thirsting  soul,  so  is  good  news  from  a  far 
country. — Is  the  pen  mightier  than  the  sword  ? — ^Faithful  are  the 
wounds  of  a  friend ;  but  the  kisses  of  an  enemy  are  deceitful. — 
Where  no  wood  is,  there  the  fire  goeth  out ;  so,  where  there  is 
no  tale-bearer,  the  strife  ceaseth. — What  shall  induce  a  man  to 
deny  his  faith  ?  Shall  love  of  pleasure  ?  shall  ambition  ?  shall 
persecution?  shall  the  certainty  of  death  itself  ?— Her  tears  might 
have  put  out  a  world  on  fire. — Reverence  the  hoary  head. — Then 
groan 'd  the  Earth. — When  there's  a  fire,  be  sure  to  throw  the 
looking-glasses  out  of  the  window,  and  carry  the  feather  beds 
carefully  down  in  your  arms. — To  waste  one's  time  is  foolish,  not 
tQ  mention  the  sin  involved  in  it. 

"  But  hark  I  thro'  the  fast-flashing  lightning  of  war, 
What  steed  to  the  desert  files  frantic  and  far  ? " 

"Eternal  Hope!  when  yonder  spheres  sublime 
Pealed  their  first  notes  to  sound  the  march  of  Time, 


Doflne  VialoD.    780.  DeflM  Pentontfleation.    740.  Dtiflne  ADtlthesU.    74L  Dcfln* 
Climax.    Till  Define  Irony.    743.  DoOm  ApophaeU. 


278  PROSODY. 

Thy  joyous  youth  began— but  not  to  fade. 

"When  all  the  sister  planets  have  decayed ; 

When  wrapt  in  fire  the  realms  of  ether  glow, 

And  Heaven's  last  thunder  shakes  the  world  below  $ 

Thou,  undismayed,  shalt  o'er  the  ruins  smile. 

And  light  thy  torch  at  Nature's  funeral  pile  1 " 


LESSON  C. 

PROSODY. 


YM.  Prosody  is  that  part  of  grammar  wliicli  treats 
of  the  quantity  of  syllables,  of  feet,  and  the  modes  in 
which  they  are  combined  in  verse. 

745.  Verse  is  language  so  arranged  in  lines  that 
syllables  of  a  certain  length  may  occur  at  certain  in- 
tervals. 

Yerse  is  the  form  in  which  poetry  generally  appears.  Poetry  is  dis- 
tinguished from  prose  not  only  by  this  form,  but  by  its  containing  more 
figures,  as  well  as  peculiar  words  and  expressions. 

746.  There  are  two  kinds  of  verse,  Hhyme  and 
Blank  Yerse. 

747.  Rhyme  is  that  kind  of  verse  in  which  there  is 
a  correspondence  of  sound  in  the  last  syllables  of  two 
or  more  lines  ;  as, 

"  True  wit  is  nature  to  advantage  dressed, 
What  oft  was  thought,  but  ne'er  so  well  ex/jrcssW." 

748.  Blank  Verse  is  metrical  language  without  rhyme ; 
as, 

"  Shall  we  serve  Heaven 
"With  less  respect  than  we  do  minister 
To  our  gross  selves  ?  " 

744  What  is  Prosody?  745.  What  is  Verse?  How  5s  poetry  distinguished 
from  prose  ?    746.  How  many  kinds  of  verse  are  there  f    Name  them  and  define 


PB080DT.  279 

749.  By  tlie  Quantity  of  a  syllable  is  meant  the 
time  re(iuired  for  its  utterance.  According  to  this 
time,  syllables  are  distinguished  as  Long  and  Short. 
One  long  syllable  is  equivalent  to  two  short  ones. 

750.  A  long  Hyllabic  may  be  denoted  by  a  short  horizontal  line  placed 
over  its  vowel,  a  short  syllable  by  a  curve ;  as,  pflasmg. 

751.  Remember  that  vowel  sounds  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  quan- 
tity of  syllables  in  verse.  Mety  in  which  e  has  its  short  sound,  is  more 
likely  to  be  long  in  verse  than  me,  in  which  e  has  what  is  known  as  its 
long  sound. 

762.  In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  accent  constitutes  length ; 
unaccented  syllables  are  short.  In  the  case  of  monosyllables,  nouns,  ad- 
jectives, verbs,  adverbs,  and  interjections,  are  for  the  most  part  long; 
articles  are  always  short;  prepositions  and  conjunctions  are  generally 
short ;  pronouns  are  long  when  emphasized, — when  not,  short.  Observe 
the  quantity  as  marked  in  the  following  lines : — 

"  6{  All  the  c&us<5s  which  conspire  to  blind 
Man's  erring  judgment,  find  misguide  th«5  mind, 
What  the  weak  hGad  with  struugt;st  bifis  rules, 
la  pride ;  the  nevC*r-fililing  vice  of  fools." 

753.  A  Foot  is  two  or  more  syllables,  constituting  a 
portion  of  a  line. 

754.  Tlie  most  important  feet  in  English  verse  aro 
as  follows : — 

The  Iambus,  a  short  syllable  and  a  long,  ^-  s5v6re. 

The  Tro'chbk,  a  long  syllable  and  a  short,  —^  trCmbling. 

The  Spo.ndee,  two  long  syllables,  cold  winds. 

The  Pyrrhic,  two  short  syllables,  -^-^  wil-  |  dSm^sB. 

The  A.n'apest,  two  short  and  a  long,  ■^^-  bfirricflde. 

The  Dactyl,  a  long  and  two  short,  —^.^  tendf-rljf. 

The  Am'phibrach,  a  short,  a  long,  and  a  short,  ■^  — «-  tremendous. 

The  Amphim'ackr,  a  long,  a  short,  and  a  long,  —w-  a&ddl^baga. 

e«ch.  749.  What  la  meant  by  the  Qaantity  of  a  syllable  f  A«  retrsrdu  qnnntity, 
howaro  •yllnbiM  di»tin|^iBb(Mlt  To  what  la  one  lonft  eyllnble  equivalent  t  7M. 
How  may  a  lotig  syllable  be  denoted  t  A  short  one  t  751.  What  caution  la  friven 
with  respect  to  the  quantity  of  •ylla>>lea  f  762.  In  wordit  of  more  than  one  ayllable, 
what  eonatitutea  lenirtht  State  the  prtncipiea  that  apply  to  the  quantity  of 
monoayllablat.    758.  What  ia  a  Foot  t    754.  Mention  the  moat  important  feet  that 


280  PKOSODY. 

755.  Of  these,  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  the  Ana- 
pest,  and  the  Dactyl,  are  the  principal.  A  line  may 
be  wholly  composed  of  any  of  these  four  feet,  and  it  is 
then  called  Pure. 

The  four  remaining  feet  never  form  whole  lines  by 
themselves,  but  are  sometimes  interspersed  with  other 
feet.  A  line  into  which  different  feet  enter  is  called 
Mixed.     Observe  the  following  examples : — 

1.  Pure  Iambic. — ^'Tis  ed-  |  uca-  |  tion  forms  |  the  com-  |  mon  mind. 

2.  Pure  Trochaic. — Oh !  the  |  pain,  the  |  bliss  of  |  dying ! 

3.  Pure  Anapestic. — Sh6  will  say  |  'twas  a  bar-  |  barous  deed. 

4.  Pure  Dactylic. — Handle  her  j  tenderly. 

1.  Mixed  Iambic. — No  ref-  \  lige  save  |  the  wil-  [  derness  \  remains. 

2.  Mixed  Trochaic. — Softly  |  sweet  in  j  Lydian  \  measures. 

3.  Mixed  Anapestic. — Soft  scenes  \  of  content-  \  ment  and  ease. 

4.  Mixed  Dactylic. — EvSr  move  \  cheerily. 

EXERCISE. 

Give  the  quantity  of  each  syllable  in  the  following  lines ;  in 
such  lines  as  are  divided^  name  each  foot : — 

''Sweet  is  the  breath  of  morn,  her  rising  sweet, 
"With  charm  of  earliest  birds ;  pleasant  the  sun, 
"When  first  on  this  delightful  land  he  spreads 
His  orient  beams,  on  herb,  tree,  fruit,  and  flower, 
Glistering  with  dew ;  fragrant  the  fertile  earth 
After  soft  showers ;  and  sweet  the  coming  on 
Of  grateful  evening  mild." 

*'  I  have  passed  |  o'er  the  hills  |  of  the  storm-  J  y  North, 
And  the  larch  |  has  hung  |  all  his  tas-  |  sels  forth ; 
The  fish-  I  er  is  out  j  on  the  sun-  |  ny  sea, 
And  the  rein-  |  deer  bounds  |  through  the  past-  |  ure  jfree, 
And  the  pine  |  has  a  fringe  |  of  soft-  ]  er  green, 
And  the  moss  |  looks  hright  |  where  my  step  |  has  heen." 


occur  in  English  verse,  and  the  Bjilables  of  which  each  coneistB,  765.  Of  which 
of  these  feet  may  lines  be  wholly  composed  !  What  are  such  lines  called  ?  What 
ase  is  made  of  the  other  feet  ?  What  is  meant  by  a  Mixed  Line  ?  Give  examples 
of  pure  and  mixed  lines. 


PB060DT.  281 

LESSON  CI. 

PROSODY    (CONTINUED). 

756.  By  Metres  are  meant  the  different  Bystcms 
according  to  which  verses,  or  lines,  are  formed.  The^ 
are  nained  from  the  feet  employed,  and  their  number. 

757.  Metres  in  which  the  iambus  prevails,  are  called 
Iambic ;  those  in  which  the  trochee  prevails.  Trochaic  ; 
the  anapest,  Anapestic ;  tlie  dactyl,  Dactylic. 

758.  Distinguished  by  the  number  of  feet  in  a  line, 
the  varieties  of  metre  are  as  follows :  Monom'eter,  which 
consists  of  one  foot ;  Dim'eter,  of  two  feet ;  Trim'eter, 
of  tliree;  Tetram'eter,  of  four;  Pentam'eter,  of  five; 
Ilexam'eter,  of  six ;  Heptam'eter,  of  seven ;  Octom'eter, 
of  eight. 

759.  Some  metres,  besides  a  certain  number  of  com- 
plete feet,  contain  a  syllable  over  at  the  end  of  the  line. 
Such  metres  are  called  Hy-per-cat-a-lec'-tic. 

760.  Scanning  is  the  process  of  dividing  a  line  into 
the  feet  of  which  it  is  composed. 

761.  Examples  of  the  different  metres  follow.  Some 
of  the  lines  are  pure,  and  some  are  mixed.  The  figures 
1,  2,  3,  &c.,  respectively  denote  monometer,  dimeter, 
trimeter,  &c.     Vertical  lines  mark  divisions  into  feet. 

To  scan,  pronounce  the  syllables  that  constitute  the  successive  feet, 
after  each  foot  mentioning  its  name.  The  fifth  iambic  line  m  the  Exercise 
below  would  be  scanned  thus :  IMtafs  fame^  spondee ;  a  fan-^  iambus ; 
cied  lifty  iambus;  in  oth-,  iambus;  er^s  breath,  iambus.  The  metre  w 
mixfd  iambic  pentameter.  The  third  of  the  hypcrcatalectic  lines  would  \w 
■canned  thus:  Athene,  trochee;  hoicU  my,  trochee;  heart  and,  trochee; 
9oui,  srllable  over.     The  metre  is  pure  trochaic  trimeter  hypercataleclic. 

766.  What  are>  nipant  hy  Metr»<l  757.  What  aro  lambio  Metres  t  Trochaicl 
Anapestiot  Daotyllct  768.  Name  the  different  mctrow  aa  dintlmnilahod  l>y  their 
number  of  feet,  and  tell  of  what  each  condsta.  769.  What  la  meaut  h^  ilypt-rcaU- 
Urct^Molrcat    7«a  What  iaSoannUigt 


I 


282  PROSODY. 

EXEKCISE. 

Scan  the  following  lines^  and  name  the  metre  of  each: — 

IAMBIC   METRES. 
1.  Despair  1 

2.  Th6  wave  |  resounds. 

3.  The  pant-  |  ing  herds  |  repose. 
4.  The  proud  |  are  taught  |  to  taste  |  of  pain. 
6.  What's  fame?  |  A  fan-  |  cied  life  |  in  oth-  |  er's  breath. 
6.  With  still  unwearied  wing,  and  eye  that  never  sleeps. 
7.  Thy  bounteous  hand  with  worldly  bliss  has  made  my  cup  run  o'er. 
S.  Wisdom,  in  sable  garb  arrayed,  immersed  in  rapturous  thought  profoimdL 

TROCHAIC   METRES. 
1.  Pillow. 
2.  Charms  trans-  |  porting. 

3.  Other  |  arms  may  |  press  theS. 

4.  War,  he  \  sung,  is  |  toil  and  |  trouble. 
.5.  Oh  1  the  I  strife  of  |  this  di-  |  vided  1  being. 
6.  Only  thou  art  holy  ;  there  is  none  beside  thee. 
7.  Read  you  not  the  wrong  you're  doing,  in  my  cheek's  pale  color? 
8.  If  the  world  be  worth  thy  winning,  think,  oh  1  think  it  worth  enjoying 

ANAPESTIC    METRES. 

1,  It  is  gone  1 
2.  Let  the  loud  |  trumpet  sound. 
3.  My  grottoes  are  shaded  with  trees. 
4.  Have  ye  e'er  heard  of  gallant  like  young  Lochinvart 

DACTYLIC  METRES. 
1.  Slenderly. 
2.  Fashioned  so  |  slenderly. 
3.  Fierce  as  the  breath  of  the  hurricane. 
4.  Happy  the  home  of  the  thrifty  and  temperate  1 
5.  Far  o'er  the  burning  sands,  far  over  desert  lands,  wearily. 
e.  Far  o'er  the  burning  sands,  far  over  desert  lands,  plodding  on  wearily. 

EXAMPLES  OP  HYPERCATALECTIC  METRES. 

1.  Dac.  Mon.  Hyp—BvCtr  be  1  firm. 

2.  Ana.  Dim.  IIijp.— For  thg  tern-  |  pSst  Is  rag-  |  Ing. 

3.  Tro.  Trim,  //t/p.— Athens  |  holds  my  |  hgart  and  |  soul. 

4.  lam.  Tetr.  Hyp.—l  ki  fiw  |  the  thing  |  that's  most  |  uncom-  |  mon. 

5.  lam.    Pent,    //yp.— Where    reek-  1  ing    Lon-  |  don's  smOk- 1  y  cal- 1  drSn 
f^m- 1  mfira. 


INDEX 


[tm  viqvub  ketbb  to  rAon,  hot  to  8xono«a.l 


A,  when  to  bo  osod  aa  the  indefinite  ar- 
ticle, 74. 

Abbrevuitiotut,  list  of,  261. 

Accent,  defined,  12.  The  acot«,  13.  Dlf- 
fcreuce  ot,  servos  to  distingnish  words, 
12.    or  compound  words,  18. 

Affjeciice  Pronoun^  70.  Declension  ot 
71.    Number  of,  71.    Parsing  ot,  71. 

Ailjectiaet,  defined,  75.  Classes  of;  75. 
Proper,  defined,  75.  Numeral,  defined, 
76;  classes  of^  76.  Pronominal,  76. 
Common,  77.  Comparison  of,  78.  Rule 
for,  79 ;  remarks  under.  21S,  220.  Pars- 
ing of,  79.     Arranjtcmcnt  oi^  218. 

ArljuncU,  defined,  150. 

Aclr«rb«,  defined,  14L  Classes  oi;  141. 
Of  manner,  141.  How  to  bo  distin- 
guished from  adjectives,  143.  To  bo 
distinguished  in  u.se  fh)m  adjectives, 
144.  Conjunctive,  144.  Complex,  145. 
Comparison  ot  147.  Constnictlon  of, 
US.  Used  independently,  148.  Rule 
for,  149;  remarks  under,  242.  Parsing 
ot  143.    Position  ot  24a 

Allegory,  2T5. 

Alph'ibet,  of  a  language,  what  it  la,  & 
The  English,  & 

Amphibrach^  the,  27». 

Amphimact,  the,  279. 

A!f,  when  to  be  used  as  the  Indefinite 
article,  78. 

AnapeM,  the,  2T9. 

AnUctdent,  th^  what  it  U,  91  PodUoB 
ot  64.    BometioM*  uadentood,  94. 


AntitheftU,  276. 

Aphixrtsia,  272. 

Apocope,  272. 

Apophaftie,  277. 

Apostrophe,  the,  270. 

ApposUiotu,  what  is  meant  by  it,  6ft 
Rule  for  subsUntives  in,  195;  remarks 
under,  195. 

ArticleA,  defined,  72.  Classification  ot 
78.  The  definite  article,  what  it  de- 
notes, 7a  The  indefinite  article,  what 
it  denotes,  7a  Rule  for,  74;  remartu 
under,  214  Parsing  ot  74.  Position 
ot  216. 

As  (relative),  to  what  applied,  6a 

AuriliitrieJt,  what  they  are,  107.  Enu- 
merated, 107.  How  t<t  be  taken  In 
parsing,  107.  Sometimes  understood, 
107.  How  to  l>e  distinguished  from 
principal  verbs,  1 13. 


Saae  of  a  itentenee.  defined,  167. 

Bk,  a  principal   verb  and  an  anxiltary, 

loa    Conjugated,  114    Old  form  ot  >n 

the  present  indicative,  116k 
Bkwakb,  tenses  ot  18a 
BracJUU^  whAt  oaed  for,  968L 


Cait,  oonjngated,  112. 
OapUaU,  rules  for,  WL 


284: 


INDEX. 


Cardinals,  76. 

Case,  of  nouns,  50.  Defined,  51,  Nomi- 
natiye,  what  it  denotes,  51.  Posses- 
Bive,  what  it  denotes,  52.  Objective, 
what  it  denotes,  52.  Cases,  how  form- 
ed, 53. 

Clauses,  defined,  166.  Kinds  of,  166. 
Substantive,  defined,  166.  Kelative, 
defined,  166.  Participial,  defined,  166. 
Adverbial,  defined,  166.      Causal,  de- 

'  fined,  16T.  Comparative,  defined,  167. 
Hypothetical,  defined,  167. 

Climax,  276. 

Collective  Nmms,  defined,  30.  Gender 
of,  46. 

Colon,  the,  rules  for,  263. 

Comma,  the,  rules  for,  265. 

Comparative  Degree,  the,  defined,  78. 
Adjectives  wanting  in,  81.  Adjectives 
found  only  in,  82.     Construction  ot, 

220. 
Comparison,  78.    Degrees  of,  78;   for- 
mation of  the,  78.    Irregular,  80.    Of 
compound  adjectives,  82.    Of  adverbs, 

147. 
Compomid  Words,  defined,  12.    Accent 

of,  13.     Formation  o^  18.    Elements 

of,  88. 

Conjugation,  what  it  is,  108.  Of  he,  114 
Of  a  transitive  verb,  in  the  active 
voice,  117;  in  the  passive  voice,  120. 
Negative,  127.  Interrogative,  128; 
when  used,  129.  Negative-interroga- 
tive, 128 ;  when  used,  129. 

Conjunctions,  defined,  156.  List  of,  156. 
To  be  distinguished  from  other  parts 
of  speech,  157.  Complex,  158.  Kule 
for,  158;  remarks  under,  248.  Parsing 
of,  158.     Correlative,  250. 

Consonants,  defined,  10. 

CoTTLD,  conjugated,  112. 


Dactyl,  the,  279. 

Dash,  the,  what  it  denotes,  268. 

Declension,  of  nouns,  53.  Of  simple  per- 
sonal pronouns,  55.  Of  simple  relatives, 
63.  Of  compound  relatives,  65.  Of 
adjective  pronouns,  7L 


Demonstrative  Adjective  Pronouns,  70. 

Derivative  Words,  defined,  12.  Forma- 
tion of,  13,  18. 

Diaeresis,  what  it  is,  28. 

Diphthongs, ^q^uqH,!!.  Proper, It.  Im^ 
proper,  11. 

Dissyllables,  defined,  9. 

Distributive  Adjective  Pronouns,  70. 

Do,  a  principal  verb  and  an  auxiliary,  lOfll 
Conjugated  as  an  auxiliary,  109. 


Each  Other,  construction  of,  explained, 

196. 
Elements,  of  compound  words,  38. 
Ellipsis,  what  it  is,  177.  Examples  ■■  .f,  177. 

Parsing  exercise  illustrative  of,  179. 
Exclamation-point,  the,  rule  for,  262. 


False  Syntax,  connected  with  the  sub- 
ject and  nominative  independent,  186. 
Substantives  modifying  nouns,  189.  The 
object,  193.  Objective  without  a  prep- 
osition, 194  Nouns  in  apposition,  197. 
Substantives  after  verbs,  200.  Pronouns, 
202,  205, 212.  Eelatives,  209.  Articles, 
216.  Adjectives,  219,  222.  Agreement 
of  verbs,  225,  229.  Moods  and  tenses  of 
verbs,  232.  The  infinitive,  285.  Par- 
ticiples, 238, 241.  Adverbs,  244.  Prep- 
ositions, 247.  Conjunctions,  250.  Mis- 
cellaneous, 251. 

Feminine,  formation  of  nouns  in  the,  47. 

Figures,  plural  of,  how  formed,  37. 

Figures,  defined,  272.  Of  etymology,  272. 
Of  syntax,  273.    Of  rhetoric,  274 

Foot,  a,  what  it  is,  279. 

Future,  of  time,  110.  Of  determination, 
110. 

O. 

Gender,  of  nouns,  44.  Defined,  44.  Mas- 
culine, defined,  45.  Feminine,  defined, 
45.  Nouns  destitute  of,  45.  Common, 
45.    Of  coUecUve  nouns,  46.     Distin- 


iin>Ex. 


285 


(nil!>ti«»<!  bv  n,  r]i.<in?ortrU'rminatlon,47; 
l\  tli(«  iiM'  uf  cliir.nnl  wonU,  4S;  by 
pre&xuitg  wordA  iuUicAting  the  §ex,  49. 
Of  prooouiM,  fiSb 
grammar,  what  it  t«acbct  as,  T.  Eng- 
lish, wh«t  it  tCM^taes  us,  7. 


II. 


flATi,  A  princlpsl  verb  and  an  auxiliaiy, 
10&    Coqjo^Uid  aa  an  auxiliary,  109. 

ffyperi>aton,VIS^ 

Byp«rboUy  27& 

ByptreaiaUctic,  metrM,  281. 

Hyphen^  the,  for  what  useil,  270.  When 
iiaeU  between  the  parts  of  a  compound 
word,  18.  When  it  nuy  b«  used  for  the 
di»f«8i^28. 


/.  when  a  consonant,  lOi 

Jambu*,  the,  279. 

17,  sotnetimes  omitt«d  before  certain 
tenflea,llC. 

Imperattv  Mood,  what  it  ezpresiee,  98. 

Ind^fMtt  Aditetk>«  Pronouns^  TO. 

rndtoait90  Mood,  tor  what  lued,  90. 
Present  tease  of  the,  what  it  denotes, 
Oa  Imperibet,  91.  Perfect,  91.  Plu- 
perfect, 92.  Fir<t  Future,  92L  Second 
Fatoie,  9S.  Interrogative  form  of  the, 
91 

Injinitire  Mood,  what  it  expresses,  90. 
Present  tense  of  the,  what  it  expresses, 
99.  Perftict,  99.  Usages  of  the,  100. 
Rule  for  the,  101 ;  remarks  ander,  884. 
When  osed  witboat  its  sign,  984 

InterjeetUmt,  defined,  ISO.  List  of  the 
principal,  ISO.  Followed  by  the  exel*> 
mation-point,  100.  Constmction  o^  160. 
Parsing  oi;  161. 

hnUrrogaUon  point,  the,  mle  for,  209. 

lntsrroffaH94  Pronowu,  defined,  68. 
Bow  declined,  66.    Parsing  oi;  6a 

Irony,  277. 

Hrrtgular  Vtrht,  what  they  are,  181. 
Table  nf  the  chief  parU  of  th^  IBSl 

It.  Indefinite  ose  of,  57. 

OaUct,  for  Vbat  Med,  91 


I.. 

LetUrt,  defined,  &  Powers  of  the,  tl 
ClaaslHcatlon  of,  10.  Fiual,  defined,  11 
Silent,  defined,  11.  Roman,  24.  luUc, 
84.  Forms  of  the,  84  Plural  ot,  bow 
formed,  87. 


Mat,  oonjogated,  112. 

Metaphor,  275. 

Metonymy,  276. 

Mminrxs,  meskxxs,  180. 

ir«<rM,  what  they  are,  88L  Yarietieeot 
881. 

Might,  conjugated,  112. 

Miwed  Vertex,  what  they  arc,  2Sa 

ModiJUrt,  defined,  60. 

MonotyllabU*,  defined,  9. 

Mood,  defined,  88.  Moods  enumerated, 
80.  Indicative,  fbr  what  used,  90.  Po> 
tential,  for  what  used,  98.  Subjunctive, 
for  what  used,  96.  Imperative,  what 
it  expresses,  98.    Infinitive,  what  it  ex- 


MumplicaUve»,  7& 
Must,  conjugated,  118. 


KvKD,  a  principal  verb  and  an  aaxlliary, 
118.    Conjugated  as  an  auxiliary,  112. 

News,  singular,  4& 

NomifuMtt  Oaf,  what  it  denotes,  51. 
Bule  for  the,  68.    Independent,  58, 186. 

NowM,  defined,  2&  Classification  of,  2a 
Common,  defined,  99;  when  they  be- 
come proper,  89;  Ibbdi visions  of;  8Qi 
Proper,  defined,  80;  when  called 
complex,  81 ;  plural  of,  86 ;  how  made 
feminine,  4a  Collective,  defined,  80i 
Participial,  defined,  80.  Diminutive, 
defined,  80.  Abstract,  defined,  80.  Per- 
son  oi;  81.  Number  of,  8a  IrreguUr 
in  the  plural,  86.  Alilce  In  both  num- 
bers, 86.  Compound,  plural  of,  88; 
gender  of,  40.  Complex  proper,  plural 
oi;  80.    Foreign,  plural  oi;  40i    Siagu' 


286 


INDEX. 


lar,  43.  Plural,  48,  Gender  o^  44. 
Correlative,  47.  Case  o^  50.  Declen- 
sion of,  53.  Parsing  o^  60. 
Number,  of  nouns,  33.  Defined,  83.  Sin- 
gular, defined,  34.  Plural,  defined,  34; 
rules  for  forming  the,  34.  Of  verbs,  100. 

O. 

O,  diflference  between  it  and  o\  160. 
Object,  what  it  is,  52.     Rule  for  the,  191 ; 

remarks  under,  192.    Position  of  the, 

192. 
Objective  Case,  what  it  denotes.  52.  Eule 

for  the,  53.    Without  a  preposition,  59, 

193 :  remarks  on  the,  193. 
One  another,  construction  of  explained, 

196. 
Ordinals,  76. 
Ought,  conjugated,  ISi 


Paragoge,  272. 

Parentheses,  what  used  for,  263. 

Parsing,  of  nouns  and  personal  pronouns, 
60.  Of  relati  ves,  65.  Of  i  n  terrogati  ves, 
69.  Of  adjective  pronouns,  71.  Of  ar- 
ticles, 74.  Of  adjectives,  79.  Of  verbs, 
101.  Of  participles,  106.  Of  adverbs, 
14S.  Of  prepositions,  155.  Of  conjunc- 
tions, 153.  Of  interjections,  161.  Exer- 
cise in  elliptical,  179.  Of  difficult  con- 
structions, 181. 

Participles,  defined,  102.  The  Present 
Participle,  102.  The  Perfect,  103.  The 
Compound  Perfect,  103.  How  to  be 
distinguished  from  adjectives,  105; 
from  participial  nouns,  105.  Used  in- 
dependently, 105.  Eule  for,  105;  re- 
marks under,  2-37?  Substantives  modi- 
fying, 106.  Parsing  of;  106.  In  ing, 
used  with  a  passive  meaning,  123.  Po- 
sition of,  237.  Remarks  on  the  con- 
struction of,  240. 

Parts  of  Speech,  what  they  are,  25.  Enu- 
merated, 27. 

Period,  the,  rule  for,  260. 

Person,  of  nouns,  31.  Defined,  82.  First, 
defined,  32.  Second,  defined,  82.  Third, 
defined,  82.    Use  of  the  third  for  the 


first,  82 ;  for  the  second,  88.  Of  verba, 
99. 

Personal  Pronouns,  simple,  55;  declen- 
sion o^  55.    Compound,  55. 

Personification,  what  it  is,  29,  276. 
Makes  common  nouns  proper,  29.  En- 
dows the  names  of  inanimate  object* 
with  gender,  45. 

Pleonasm,  273. 

Plural,  of  nouns,  rules  for  forming  the, 
34  Of  proper  nouns,  35.  Nouns  irreg- 
ular in  the,  36.  Nouns  that  have  two 
forms  in  the,  36.  Of  figures,  &c.,  87. 
Of  compound  nouns,  38.  Of  complex 
proper  nouns,  89.  Of  foreign  nouns,  40; 
rules  for  the,  41.  Nouns  that  have  no, 
43.  Nouns  used  only  in  the,  43.  Of 
pronouns,  used  for  singular,  56. 

Polysyllables,  defined,  9. 

Positive  Degree,  defined,  78.  Adjectives 
wanting  in  the,  81. 

Possessive  Case,  what  it  denotes,  52. 
How  formed,  53.  Of  the  simpls  per- 
sonal pronouns,  56,  Used  after  the 
preposition  of,  56.  Rule  for  the,  58. 
Eule  for  the,  before  a  participle,  239; 
remarks  under,  240. 

Potential  Mood,  for  what  used,  98.  Pres- 
ent tense  of  the,  what  it  denotes,  93. 
Imperfect,  94;  wrong  use  of  the,  231. 
Perfect,  94,  Pluperfect,  95.  Interroga- 
tive form  of  the,  95. 

Predicate,  defined,  50.  A  compound, 
169.    Nominative,  170.    Adjective,  170. 

Prefixes,  defined,  14.    List  of,  15. 

Prepositions,  defined,  150.  List  of,  151. 
To  be  distinguished  from  adverbs  and 
conjunctions,  151.  Complex,  152.  Po- 
sition of,  15-3.  Terms  of  the  relation 
indicated  by,  153.  Eule  for,  155;  re- 
marks under,  245.  Parsing  of^  15i\ 
List  of,  that  follow  certain  words,  246. 

Primitive  Words,  defined,  12. 

Progressive  Form,  of  the  verb,  125. 
Used  passively,  125.  Parsing  of  verbs 
in  the,  126. 

Pronouns,  defined,  54  Classes  of,  54 
Gender  of,  55.  Personal,  55;  parsing 
of,  60.  Relative,  62.  Interrogative,  6S. 
Adjective,  70.  Principles  relating  to 
the  person,  number,  and  gender  o^  80ft 


INDEX. 


287 


Bofcrrlntc  to  eoUeetlT*  Doana,  SOI. 
Suituliiig  for  two  or  more  BlngnUr  sab- 
AUuuv«ft,  201,  904.  Referring  to  anb- 
sunUves  of  different  persons,  202.  Be- 
oiArkB  on  the  oonstnxcUon  of,  211. 

Promtdy^  deflned,  27& 

ProcMMte.  S7S. 

JPunaliuation^  defined,  260.  Polnta  used 
in,S60. 

Pur«  FeriM,  wh*t  they  arc,  28a 

ryrrMe,  the,  JTO. 


Quantity,  of  a  Billable,  279. 

Quotation,  a,  dcflned,  178.    How  treated 

in  analyzing,  174. 
Quotation-point*,    for    what   used,  270. 

Single,  271. 
QcoTU,  qcoD,  189. 


BeJative  Pronouns,  simple,  62;  declen- 
sion of,  68 ;  Componnd,  64 ;  equivalent 
to  antecedent  and  simple  relative,  65 1 
declension  of,  65.  Parsing  of,  65.  Rule 
for,  1G4,207;  remarks  under,  207,  aia 
Position  oC  209. 

Rhtjme,  defined,  278. 

Root4,  inseparable,  14  Entering  Into 
compound  words,  19.  Boot  of  the  verb, 
180. 

Rult4,  of  spelling,  20.  Of  syllabicat'on, 
22.  For  the  formation  of  the  ca8c^  53. 
For  eases  of  nouns  aiki  pronouns,  63. 
For  eapitala,  267. 

8. 

Scanning,  what  it  is,  281. 

'  -',  the,  rules  for,  261 

defined,  16S.  Classifled  accord- 
.'Ir  meaning,  16S.  Declarativct 
dftlned,  16&  Interrogative,  defined, 
108.  Imperative,  defined,  1C&  Exclam- 
atorj,  dcflneil,  168.  Claasifled  accord- 
ing to  their  form,  166.  Members  of; 
166.  Bimple  and  compound  sentences, 
defined,  16&  Compound,  with  dissimi- 
lar members,  170.  Principal  parts  oi; 
17a    Analysis  ei;  m  ;  forms  o^  m. 


SoALL,  conjugated,  110.  Force  of;  110; 
in  questions.  111. 

8novu>,  conjugated,  118. 

^m^274. 

SpMch,  the  parts  at,  9& 

Si>€lUng,  what  it  Is,  a    Bules  of,  20. 

Spondee,  the,  279. 

Subject,  grammatical,  defined,  60.  Logi- 
cal, defined,  80.  Of  a  verb,  51.  A  com- 
pound, 168.  Position  of  the,  1S6.  8ub- 
JactA,  taken  together,  227 ;  taken  sep- 
%anitely,  228. 

Subjunctive  Mood,  for  what  used,  9<l 
Present  tense  of  the,  for  what  used,  97. 
Imperfect,  94;  dilferenoe  between  it 
and  the  imperfect  iudicative,  97. 

Sutmfantire,  what  it  denotes,  58.  Bule 
for  a,  modifying  a  participle,  106.  Bule 
for  a,  modifying  a  noun,  ISS ;  remarks 
under,  ISS.  Position  of  a,  modifying  a 
noun,  189.  Bule  for  a,  after  a  verb,  197 ; 
remarks  under,  197.  Case  of,  after  a 
participle  used  independently,  198;  af- 
ter a  participle  preceded  by  a  possess- 
ive, 19a 

Sujheef,  defined,  14    List  ot,  IT. 

Superlative  Degree,  the,  defined,  7a 
Construction  of,  221. 

SyUahication,  what  it  is,  22.    Bules  o(  2S. 

Syllableit,  dcHncd,  8.  Division  of  woHs 
acconling  to  their,  9. 

Syllepeis,  27a 

Syncope,  272. 

Synecdoche,  276. 

SynUxae,  defined,  1S&.    False,  defined,  180^ 


Tmge,  defined,  89.  Tenses,  enumerated, 
89;  comiMund,  107;  formation  of  tho 
compound,  ISO. 

Thaic,  construction  ol^  249. 

That  (rcUUveX  to  what  applied,  63.  TIow 
to  bo  distinguisheil  (W)m  the  n>nJuno* 
tion  that,  6a  When  to  bo  used  in  stead 
ottoho  or  leAtVA,  20a 

TYme,  grand  divisions  of,  S9. 

TttU,  alone  to  be  pluralized  la  oompiax 
proper  nouns,  40. 

7>ii«e<«,  272. 

THpAthongt,  definw!,  U. 


288 


INDEX. 


Trisyllables,  defined,  9. 
Trochee,  the,  279. 

U. 

U,  when  a  consonant,  10. 


F<?r&»,  defined,  84.    A  verb  mnst  be  con- 
tained in  «very  predicate,  60;  subject 
of;  51,  84 ;    how  found,  85.    Take  the  j 
same  case  after  as  before,  59.    Transi- 1 
tive,  defined,  85.    Intransitive,  defined,  j 
85 ;    have    no    voice,    87 ;    sometimes, 
when  followed  by  a  preposition,  thrown 
into  a  passive  form,  87.     Properties  of,  | 
88.     When  called  Jlnite,  89.      Person  ] 
and  number  of,  99.    PiUle  for,  100 ;  re- 1 
marks  under,  224,  227,  230.      Parsing 
of;  101.     Conjugation  of,  what  it  is,  108. 
Progressive  form  of,  124.     Eoot  of  the 
verb,  130.     Chief  parts  of,  131.    Kegu- 
lar  and  irregular,  defined,  131.    Table 
of  irregular,  183.    Defective,  138.    Uni- 
personal,  139.     Construction  o^  agree- 
ing with  collective  nouns,  225;  agreeing 
with  two  or  more  singular  subjects,  227. 
Corrupt  forms  of,  231. 

Verse,  defined,  278.    Blank*  27S. 

Vision,  276. 


Vocative  Expressions,  defined,  168. 
Voice,  defined,  86.    Active,  defined,  87. 

Passive,  defined,  87 ;  parts  of  the,  how 

formed.  120. 
Vowels,  defined,  10.    Combinations  of,  11. 

W,  when  a  consonant  and  when  a  vowel, 
10. 

Were,  used  for  would  be,  116. 

What  (relative),  to  what  applied,  63. 

Which,  to  what  applied,  62. 

Who,  to  what  applied,  62. 

Will,  conjugated  as  principal  verb  and 
as  auxiliary,  110.  Force  of,  as  an  auxil- 
iary, 110  ;  in  questions.  111. 

Wis,  wit,  wot,  139. 

Words,  defined,  7.  Combined  in  sen- 
tences, to  express  thoughts,  8.  Classified 
according  to  their  formation,  12.  Anal- 
ysis of,  18.  Divided  into  nine  classes, 
25. 

WotTLD,  conjugated,  112.  Used  as  a  prin- 
cipal verb,  113 ;  tenses  of,  13a 


r,  when  a  consonant  and  when  a  vowel, 
10. 


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EDUCATIONAL  WORKS. 

Liaugliliii's  Mill's  Political  Economy. 
I^  Conte's  Compend  of  Geolog^y. 

Elements  of  Geology. 

Linton's  Historical  Charts.    With  Revolving  Supporter  and  Manual. 

Literature  Primers.     Edited  by  J.  R.  Green,  M.  A. 

English  Gkammar.  English  Literature.  Philology.  Classi- 
cal Geographtt.  Shaksiere.  Studies  in  Bryant.  Greek 
Literature.  English  Grammar  Exercises.  Homer.  Eng- 
lish Composition. 

Lockyer's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Astronomy. 

Lupton's  Scientific  Agriculture. 

Lyte's  Grammar  and  Composition. 

MacArtliur's  Education  in  its  Relation  to  Manual  Industry. 

Manning's  Book-Keeping. 

Marsh's  Single  and  Double  Entry  Book-Keeping. 

McAdoo's  Geology  of  Tennessee. 

Markham's  History  of  England. 

Morris's  History  of  England. 

Historical  English  Grammar. 

Model  Copy-Books.    With  Sliding  Copies.    Six  Numbers. 

Primary  Series.    Three  Numbers. 

Morrison's  Ventilation  and  Warming  of  School-Buildings. 
Morse's  First  Book  of  Zoolog^y. 
Munsell's  Psychology. 
Nicholson's  Text-Book  of  Geology. 

— Text-Book  of  Zoology.    (.Revised  Edition.) 

Northend's  Memory  Gems. 

Choice  Thoughts. 

• Gems  of  Thought. 

Painter's  History  of  Education. 

Preyer's  Senses  and  the  Will.     Translated  by  II.  Vv'.  Drown. 

Quackenbos's  Primary  Arithmetic. 

Elementary  Arithmetic. 

Mental  Arithmetic. 

Practical  Arithmetic. 

Higher  Arithmetic. 

Primary  Grammar. 

English  Grammar. 

Illustrated  Lessons  in  our  Language. 

First  Lessons  in  Composition. 

Composition  and  Rhetoric. 

Elementary  History  of  the  United  States.    (New  Edition.) 

School  History  of  the  United  States. 

American  History. 

Illustrated  School  History  of  the  World. 

Natural  Philosophy. 

Rains's  Chemical  Analysis. 


YB  36482 


EDUCATIONAL  WORKS. 

lUHiua'H  Writing  MoT«iuont  TabloU. 
Kichttr«lM'it  Piano  and  Spherical  Trlfonomet ry. 
Koenier'H  TrlnclpleH  of  General  Grammar. 

Origin  of  the  KngllMh  People  and  of  the  KngUsh  Langruage. 

Ko«enkranz*M  PhlhMophy  of  Education. 

Science  Prlmem,     Edited  by  Profefr*ors  Huxley,  Ho»coc.  nnd  Stcwiirt. 

IjiCTKOOl'CTOBr.       ClIKHISTUT.       I'llTt'lC!*.       PlITSICAL    GeOORAPHT. 

(Jkouhiy.    PiiYuioLoor     Ahtbo.nomv.    I^/tant.    Looic.    Invih* 

TI'INAL    OEOXETKV.        PiANoFORTP  PlAYING.        POLITICAL     ECOM- 

ojiY.    Natiiial  Re!«ocrce)*  or  the  Umitbd  States. 

Sen«enl|c*M  Numbem  Symbolized. 

Sewell's  Chlld'M  llUtory  of  Home. 

C'hlld'ft  lIlMtory  of  Greece. 

Shaw'H  S<*lectiunM  for  Iteproduetion. 

Shephenl'M  lII»torical  Keatler. 

Song  Wave,  The. 

Spalding's  KngUiih  Literature. 

Spencer'H  Kduratlon. 

Standard  .Supplementary  Readers  : 

I.  hlany  Steps  f..r  Little  I'eet.  II.  (ioldcii  Kook  ni  (liolcp  RoadJnjj. 
III.  Hook  of  Tales.  IV.  KeadinirH  In  .Nanir>- V  Hook.  V.  Seven 
American  Clasplra.     VI.  S«  ven  British  C  la.-^k>. 

Stlckney'8  Child's  Book  of  Language. 

Teacher's  Fdltlon  of  the  same. 

Letters  and  Lessons  In  Language. 

■  Letters  and  Lessons  in  Grammar. 

Studies  In  Language. 

Solly's  Hand-Book  of  Psychology. 

Outlines  of  Psychology. 

Tappan's  Klementary  Geometry. 
Taylor's  (Bayard)  History  of  Germany. 
Tracy's  Physiology. 

Trowbridge's  New  Physics. 

Thornton's  Modem  Stenographer. 

Walker's  Health  Lesaons. 

Warelet  (The). 

Webster's  Elementary  Hpelllng-Book. 

Willunl's  Synopsis  of  General  History. 

Williamson's  Integral  and  Differential  Calculus 

Williams's  Applied  Geology. 

Wilson's  Logic. 

Wood's  Companion  First  Reader. 

Toumans's  New  Chemistry. 

Toumans's  (KUsa  A.)  First  Book  of  Botany.    (New  Edition.) 

-  Desorlptlre  Botany. 

D.  AprLBTON  A  Co.,  Nbw  Vokr.  will  send  a  DosciiptiTe  CitAlogiie  of 
Bnfrtish.  Latin,  Orc«k,  French.  German,  Spanish.  Italian,  Hebrtw,  tad 
Syriar  Text-Books,  to  those  applyint;  for  it. 


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